LEXICAL GRAMMAR · VALENCY · COMPLEMENTATION · SUBCATEGORISATION · COUNTABILITY · PREPOSITION PATTERNS · COLligation · WORD PATTERNS
Lexical grammar is the grammar that belongs to particular words. To know a word fully, a learner needs more than definition and pronunciation: the learner must know what structures the word permits, requires or strongly prefers. Valency describes the participant and complement slots a word can open, especially for verbs.
This is why two near-synonyms can behave differently in sentences. English says explain the rule to us but tell us the rule; avoid doing but decide to do; interested in but responsible for. These patterns are part of lexical knowledge, not decorative grammar added later.
This guide explains valency, subcategorisation, complementation, transitivity, ditransitivity, verb patterns, adjective complements, noun complements, countability, preposition choice, colligation and phrasal-verb grammar. Existing eduKateSG Word Classes and Complements/Adjuncts articles remain untouched.
A word brings some of its grammar with it.
2. Lexical grammar
Lexical grammar is the grammar associated with particular lexical items. Knowing a word includes knowing the structures, complements, prepositions, countability patterns and constructions that naturally accompany it.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
3. Valency
Valency describes how many and what kinds of participants or complements a word—especially a verb—can or must combine with. Different verbs open different grammatical slots.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
4. Subcategorisation
Subcategorisation refers to the grammatical frames a lexical item selects. A verb may take an object, an infinitive, a gerund, a that-clause or another complement type.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
5. Complementation
Complements complete the grammatical requirements of a word or construction. They differ from optional adjuncts that add extra information.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
6. Transitivity
Some verbs are typically intransitive, some transitive and some alternate. Learners need item-specific knowledge, not a single universal rule.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
7. Ditransitivity
Verbs such as give can take two objects in patterns like give her the book, while other verbs require prepositional alternatives.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
8. Verb + to-infinitive
Words such as decide, hope, plan often select to-infinitive complements.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
9. Verb + -ing
Words such as avoid, enjoy, consider commonly select gerund-participial complements.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
10. Verb + that-clause
Reporting and cognition verbs often allow or prefer that-clauses, though register and meaning affect choice.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
11. Verb + object + infinitive
Verbs such as allow, persuade, encourage can select an object followed by an infinitival complement.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
12. Adjective complementation
Adjectives can prefer particular prepositions or clause patterns: interested in, afraid of, ready to.
The educational implication is that vocabulary notebooks should store at least one grammatical frame. Meaning without pattern knowledge often produces sentences that are understandable but nonstandard or unnatural.
13. Noun complementation
Nouns can take of-phrases, that-clauses and other complements: reason for, evidence that, ability to.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
14. Countability
Countability is lexical grammar. English says advice and information as mass nouns in standard general use, while related concepts may be countable in other languages.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
15. Preposition choice
Preposition patterns are often word-specific: depend on, consist of, responsible for, interested in. Translation alone rarely predicts them reliably.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
16. Colligation
Colligation describes preference for grammatical patterns rather than individual lexical partners. It sits near the boundary between lexical grammar and corpus phraseology.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
17. Particles and phrasal verbs
Multiword verbs can impose separability and object-placement rules that belong to the lexical item itself.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
18. Sense-specific grammar
Different senses of the same form can select different grammatical patterns. Grammar can therefore help disambiguate meaning.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
19. Register and grammar
Formal and informal varieties may prefer different complementation patterns even when both are grammatical.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
20. Lexical grammar in dictionaries
Learner dictionaries encode grammar through labels, patterns and examples. Ignoring those fields wastes some of the most useful lexical information.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
21. Teaching
Store words in frames, not as isolated definitions. A useful vocabulary entry includes at least one authentic grammatical pattern.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
22. AI-era grammar
AI can generate example sentences, but learners should compare patterns across reliable dictionaries and corpora so one fluent sentence is not mistaken for the only valid construction.
Lexical grammar should be learned from repeated authentic patterns rather than invented from translation. Similar concepts do not guarantee identical complementation across languages or synonyms.
23. Lexical grammar casebook — Cases 1–20
1. depend
Class: verb. Pattern: depend on + noun/-ing. Example: We depend on reliable data. Grammar lesson: preposition-selected verb.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
2. consist
Class: verb. Pattern: consist of + noun. Example: The course consists of five units. Grammar lesson: fixed preposition.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
3. belong
Class: verb. Pattern: belong to + noun. Example: This book belongs to Mira. Grammar lesson: preposition-selected verb.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
4. suffer
Class: verb. Pattern: suffer from + noun. Example: Many patients suffer from insomnia. Grammar lesson: sense-specific preposition.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
5. approve
Class: verb. Pattern: approve of + noun/-ing. Example: They approved of the plan. Grammar lesson: verb-preposition pattern.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
6. object
Class: verb. Pattern: object to + noun/-ing. Example: She objected to changing the schedule. Grammar lesson: to as preposition.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
7. insist
Class: verb. Pattern: insist on + noun/-ing / insist that-clause. Example: He insisted on paying. Grammar lesson: multiple complements.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
8. prevent
Class: verb. Pattern: prevent + object + from -ing. Example: The barrier prevents cars from entering. Grammar lesson: object + preposition.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
9. protect
Class: verb. Pattern: protect + object + from/against. Example: The coating protects metal from corrosion. Grammar lesson: object + preposition.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
10. provide
Class: verb. Pattern: provide + object + with + noun. Example: The school provided students with laptops. Grammar lesson: complex complementation.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
11. supply
Class: verb. Pattern: supply + object + with + noun. Example: They supplied the team with equipment. Grammar lesson: complex complementation.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
12. explain
Class: verb. Pattern: explain + noun + to + person. Example: She explained the rule to us. Grammar lesson: not *explain us the rule.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
13. describe
Class: verb. Pattern: describe + noun + to + person. Example: He described the process to the class. Grammar lesson: object structure.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
14. suggest
Class: verb. Pattern: suggest + -ing / that-clause. Example: She suggested taking the train. Grammar lesson: gerund/that-clause.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
15. recommend
Class: verb. Pattern: recommend + -ing / that-clause. Example: I recommend reading the full report. Grammar lesson: gerund/that-clause.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
16. avoid
Class: verb. Pattern: avoid + -ing. Example: Avoid touching the hot surface. Grammar lesson: gerund complement.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
17. enjoy
Class: verb. Pattern: enjoy + -ing/noun. Example: They enjoy reading. Grammar lesson: gerund complement.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
18. consider
Class: verb. Pattern: consider + -ing/noun/that-clause. Example: We considered moving the date. Grammar lesson: gerund pattern.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
19. decide
Class: verb. Pattern: decide to + verb / decide that. Example: They decided to wait. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
20. hope
Class: verb. Pattern: hope to + verb / hope that. Example: We hope to finish soon. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Frame test: hide the target word but keep the grammatical frame. Ask which lexical items naturally fit and which near-synonyms require a different construction.
Error test: create a sentence using the wrong preposition or complement type, then explain why it violates this word’s lexical grammar rather than a general rule.
Production test: cue the meaning and require an original sentence that preserves the pattern without copying the example.
Transfer: identify another word with the same pattern and one semantically related word with a different pattern.
24. Lexical grammar casebook — Cases 21–40
21. plan
Class: verb. Pattern: plan to + verb. Example: She plans to study medicine. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
22. refuse
Class: verb. Pattern: refuse to + verb. Example: He refused to sign. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
23. manage
Class: verb. Pattern: manage to + verb. Example: They managed to escape. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
24. fail
Class: verb. Pattern: fail to + verb. Example: The system failed to start. Grammar lesson: to-infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
25. allow
Class: verb. Pattern: allow + object + to + verb. Example: The rule allows students to retry. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
26. permit
Class: verb. Pattern: permit + object + to + verb / permit -ing. Example: The policy permits visitors to enter. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
27. encourage
Class: verb. Pattern: encourage + object + to + verb. Example: Teachers encouraged students to revise. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
28. persuade
Class: verb. Pattern: persuade + object + to + verb. Example: She persuaded him to apply. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
29. remind
Class: verb. Pattern: remind + object + to + verb / of + noun. Example: Remind me to call. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
30. tell
Class: verb. Pattern: tell + object + to + verb / tell + object + clause. Example: He told us to wait. Grammar lesson: object required.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
31. say
Class: verb. Pattern: say + clause / say + noun + to person. Example: She said that she was ready. Grammar lesson: different from tell.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
32. ask
Class: verb. Pattern: ask + object + to + verb / ask + question. Example: They asked him to leave. Grammar lesson: object + infinitive.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
33. give
Class: verb. Pattern: give + person + thing / give + thing + to person. Example: She gave me the key. Grammar lesson: ditransitive alternation.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
34. send
Class: verb. Pattern: send + person + thing / send + thing + to person. Example: Send me the file. Grammar lesson: ditransitive alternation.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
35. buy
Class: verb. Pattern: buy + person + thing / buy + thing + for person. Example: He bought her a gift. Grammar lesson: benefactive alternation.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
36. explainable
Class: adjective. Pattern: explainable by/in terms of. Example: The difference is explainable by sampling error. Grammar lesson: adjective pattern.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
37. interested
Class: adjective. Pattern: interested in + noun/-ing. Example: She is interested in linguistics. Grammar lesson: adjective + preposition.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
38. responsible
Class: adjective. Pattern: responsible for + noun/-ing. Example: He is responsible for training staff. Grammar lesson: adjective + preposition.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
39. capable
Class: adjective. Pattern: capable of + noun/-ing. Example: The device is capable of detecting smoke. Grammar lesson: adjective + of.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
40. afraid
Class: adjective. Pattern: afraid of + noun/-ing / afraid to + verb. Example: She is afraid of flying. Grammar lesson: meaning-sensitive patterns.
Valency test: count the required and optional participants around the word. Decide which elements complete the lexical pattern and which merely add circumstance.
Sense test: check whether another sense of the same word selects a different frame. Polysemy can carry grammatical differences as well as semantic ones.
Register test: compare formal and informal variants where relevant. Different constructions may be grammatical but not equally common in every register.
Dictionary test: inspect a learner dictionary entry and locate the grammar code, preposition, infinitive or clause pattern corresponding to this use.
25. Lexical grammar casebook — Cases 41–60
41. ready
Class: adjective. Pattern: ready to + verb / ready for + noun. Example: We are ready to begin. Grammar lesson: adjective complementation.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
42. aware
Class: adjective. Pattern: aware of + noun / aware that-clause. Example: They are aware of the risk. Grammar lesson: adjective complement.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
43. similar
Class: adjective. Pattern: similar to + noun. Example: The two systems are similar to each other. Grammar lesson: preposition pattern.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
44. different
Class: adjective. Pattern: different from/to/than depending variety/context. Example: This result is different from the first. Grammar lesson: variation-sensitive pattern.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
45. reason
Class: noun. Pattern: reason for + noun/-ing / reason why / reason to + verb. Example: There is no reason to panic. Grammar lesson: noun complementation.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
46. evidence
Class: noun. Pattern: evidence of/for + noun / evidence that-clause. Example: There is evidence that the method works. Grammar lesson: noun complement.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
47. ability
Class: noun. Pattern: ability to + verb. Example: She has the ability to adapt. Grammar lesson: noun + infinitive.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
48. need
Class: noun. Pattern: need for + noun / need to + verb in other category. Example: There is a need for change. Grammar lesson: noun/preposition.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
49. increase
Class: noun. Pattern: increase in + quantity / increase of + amount. Example: There was an increase in sales. Grammar lesson: noun complementation.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
50. effect
Class: noun. Pattern: effect on + noun. Example: The policy had an effect on prices. Grammar lesson: noun + preposition.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
51. impact
Class: noun. Pattern: impact on + noun. Example: The change had little impact on outcomes. Grammar lesson: noun + preposition.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
52. advice
Class: mass noun. Pattern: some advice / a piece of advice. Example: She gave me useful advice. Grammar lesson: countability.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
53. information
Class: mass noun. Pattern: some information / a piece of information. Example: We need more information. Grammar lesson: countability.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
54. equipment
Class: mass noun. Pattern: some equipment / a piece of equipment. Example: The lab bought new equipment. Grammar lesson: countability.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
55. research
Class: mass noun in general standard use. Pattern: conduct research / a research study. Example: They conducted research on memory. Grammar lesson: countability/register.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
56. progress
Class: mass noun. Pattern: make progress. Example: The team made steady progress. Grammar lesson: countability + collocation.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
57. homework
Class: mass noun. Pattern: do homework / an assignment. Example: The students finished their homework. Grammar lesson: countability.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
58. news
Class: singular mass-like noun. Pattern: The news is surprising.. Example: surface plural mismatch Grammar lesson: undefined.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
59. scissors
Class: plural-form noun. Pattern: a pair of scissors. Example: These scissors are sharp. Grammar lesson: lexical number.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
60. people
Class: plural noun / peoples in special sense. Pattern: many people. Example: People are waiting outside. Grammar lesson: irregular lexical number.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
61. take off
Class: phrasal verb. Pattern: take off / take + object + off depending sense. Example: Take your shoes off. Grammar lesson: particle placement.
Countability/number test: where relevant, change singular, plural, article or quantifier and observe whether the lexical item allows the change.
Colligation test: look beyond one lexical partner and identify the grammatical environment the word prefers—such as preposition + -ing, object + infinitive or mass-noun quantification.
Cross-language test: compare the closest translation equivalent. Do not assume its argument structure or countability maps one-to-one onto English.
Repair test: present a fresh learner error involving this pattern and require diagnosis plus correction without showing the model sentence.
26. Learning words as grammar-bearing units
1. depend
Store: record depend together with depend on + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating preposition-selected verb and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
2. consist
Store: record consist together with consist of + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating fixed preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
3. belong
Store: record belong together with belong to + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating preposition-selected verb and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
4. suffer
Store: record suffer together with suffer from + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating sense-specific preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
5. approve
Store: record approve together with approve of + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating verb-preposition pattern and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
6. object
Store: record object together with object to + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to as preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
7. insist
Store: record insist together with insist on + noun/-ing / insist that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating multiple complements and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
8. prevent
Store: record prevent together with prevent + object + from -ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
9. protect
Store: record protect together with protect + object + from/against, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
10. provide
Store: record provide together with provide + object + with + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating complex complementation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
11. supply
Store: record supply together with supply + object + with + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating complex complementation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
12. explain
Store: record explain together with explain + noun + to + person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating not *explain us the rule and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
13. describe
Store: record describe together with describe + noun + to + person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object structure and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
14. suggest
Store: record suggest together with suggest + -ing / that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating gerund/that-clause and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
15. recommend
Store: record recommend together with recommend + -ing / that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating gerund/that-clause and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
16. avoid
Store: record avoid together with avoid + -ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating gerund complement and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
17. enjoy
Store: record enjoy together with enjoy + -ing/noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating gerund complement and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
18. consider
Store: record consider together with consider + -ing/noun/that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating gerund pattern and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
19. decide
Store: record decide together with decide to + verb / decide that, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
20. hope
Store: record hope together with hope to + verb / hope that, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
21. plan
Store: record plan together with plan to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
22. refuse
Store: record refuse together with refuse to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
23. manage
Store: record manage together with manage to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
24. fail
Store: record fail together with fail to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating to-infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
25. allow
Store: record allow together with allow + object + to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
26. permit
Store: record permit together with permit + object + to + verb / permit -ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
27. encourage
Store: record encourage together with encourage + object + to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
28. persuade
Store: record persuade together with persuade + object + to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
29. remind
Store: record remind together with remind + object + to + verb / of + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
30. tell
Store: record tell together with tell + object + to + verb / tell + object + clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object required and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
31. say
Store: record say together with say + clause / say + noun + to person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating different from tell and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
32. ask
Store: record ask together with ask + object + to + verb / ask + question, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating object + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
33. give
Store: record give together with give + person + thing / give + thing + to person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating ditransitive alternation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
34. send
Store: record send together with send + person + thing / send + thing + to person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating ditransitive alternation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
35. buy
Store: record buy together with buy + person + thing / buy + thing + for person, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating benefactive alternation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
36. explainable
Store: record explainable together with explainable by/in terms of, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective pattern and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
37. interested
Store: record interested together with interested in + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
38. responsible
Store: record responsible together with responsible for + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
39. capable
Store: record capable together with capable of + noun/-ing, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective + of and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
40. afraid
Store: record afraid together with afraid of + noun/-ing / afraid to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating meaning-sensitive patterns and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
41. ready
Store: record ready together with ready to + verb / ready for + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective complementation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
42. aware
Store: record aware together with aware of + noun / aware that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating adjective complement and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
43. similar
Store: record similar together with similar to + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating preposition pattern and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
44. different
Store: record different together with different from/to/than depending variety/context, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating variation-sensitive pattern and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
45. reason
Store: record reason together with reason for + noun/-ing / reason why / reason to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun complementation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
46. evidence
Store: record evidence together with evidence of/for + noun / evidence that-clause, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun complement and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
47. ability
Store: record ability together with ability to + verb, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun + infinitive and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
48. need
Store: record need together with need for + noun / need to + verb in other category, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun/preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
49. increase
Store: record increase together with increase in + quantity / increase of + amount, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun complementation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
50. effect
Store: record effect together with effect on + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
51. impact
Store: record impact together with impact on + noun, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating noun + preposition and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
52. advice
Store: record advice together with some advice / a piece of advice, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
53. information
Store: record information together with some information / a piece of information, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
54. equipment
Store: record equipment together with some equipment / a piece of equipment, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
55. research
Store: record research together with conduct research / a research study, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability/register and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
56. progress
Store: record progress together with make progress, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability + collocation and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
57. homework
Store: record homework together with do homework / an assignment, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating countability and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
58. news
Store: record news together with The news is surprising., not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating undefined and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
59. scissors
Store: record scissors together with a pair of scissors, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating lexical number and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
60. people
Store: record people together with many people, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating irregular lexical number and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
61. take off
Store: record take off together with take off / take + object + off depending sense, not as an isolated gloss. Add one natural example and one common error to avoid.
Contrast: pair the word with a near-synonym or translation equivalent whose grammar differs. Contrast prevents semantic similarity from erasing syntactic distinctions.
Retrieve: cue meaning first, then require the learner to rebuild the entire frame. Correct lexical choice with incorrect complementation is incomplete knowledge.
Generalise: find another item illustrating particle placement and explain what is shared and what remains word-specific.
27. Frequently asked questions
What is lexical grammar?
The grammatical behaviour associated with particular words and expressions.
What is valency?
The number and type of participant or complement slots a word can or must take.
What is complementation?
The structures that complete the grammatical requirements of a word or construction.
What is subcategorisation?
The set of grammatical frames a lexical item selects.
Why is preposition choice lexical?
Many words conventionally select particular prepositions that cannot be predicted from meaning alone.
Is countability part of vocabulary?
Yes. Noun countability is word-specific grammatical knowledge.
Why do synonyms have different grammar?
Semantic similarity does not require identical valency or complementation.
What is colligation?
Preference for grammatical patterns rather than specific lexical partners.
How should lexical grammar be learned?
Store words with authentic frames, examples and contrasts.
What is the simplest rule?
Learn not only what a word means, but what grammar it allows around itself.
28. Research grounding
Cambridge corpus work treats lexico-grammar as a major analytical domain alongside vocabulary and semantics. Cambridge Grammar distinguishes complements from adjuncts and describes the structural patterns that words license. Corpus approaches add colligation—the tendency of lexical items to occur in particular grammatical environments—showing why grammar and vocabulary cannot be fully separated in actual usage.
29. eduKateSG routes
- Lexical Categories and Word Classes
- Complements and Adjuncts
- Collocations and Word Partnerships
- Vocabulary Master Router
30. Final model
Lexical grammar explains why word knowledge cannot be separated cleanly into a dictionary side and a grammar side. Individual lexical items arrive with patterns, slots and restrictions.
The learner who knows the meaning but not the frame knows only part of the word.
Learn the word. Learn the structure it brings with it.
31. Final valency comparison lab
1. depend
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame depend on + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
2. consist
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame consist of + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
3. belong
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame belong to + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
4. suffer
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame suffer from + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
5. approve
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame approve of + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
6. object
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame object to + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
7. insist
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame insist on + noun/-ing / insist that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
8. prevent
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame prevent + object + from -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
9. protect
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame protect + object + from/against. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
10. provide
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame provide + object + with + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
11. supply
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame supply + object + with + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
12. explain
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame explain + noun + to + person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
13. describe
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame describe + noun + to + person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
14. suggest
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame suggest + -ing / that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
15. recommend
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame recommend + -ing / that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
16. avoid
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame avoid + -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
17. enjoy
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame enjoy + -ing/noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
18. consider
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame consider + -ing/noun/that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
19. decide
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame decide to + verb / decide that. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
20. hope
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame hope to + verb / hope that. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
21. plan
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame plan to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
22. refuse
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame refuse to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
23. manage
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame manage to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
24. fail
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame fail to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
25. allow
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame allow + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
26. permit
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame permit + object + to + verb / permit -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
27. encourage
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame encourage + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
28. persuade
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame persuade + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
29. remind
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame remind + object + to + verb / of + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
30. tell
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame tell + object + to + verb / tell + object + clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
31. say
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame say + clause / say + noun + to person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
32. ask
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame ask + object + to + verb / ask + question. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
33. give
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame give + person + thing / give + thing + to person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
34. send
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame send + person + thing / send + thing + to person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
35. buy
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame buy + person + thing / buy + thing + for person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
36. explainable
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame explainable by/in terms of. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
37. interested
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame interested in + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
38. responsible
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame responsible for + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
39. capable
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame capable of + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
40. afraid
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame afraid of + noun/-ing / afraid to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
41. ready
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame ready to + verb / ready for + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
42. aware
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame aware of + noun / aware that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
43. similar
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame similar to + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
44. different
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame different from/to/than depending variety/context. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
45. reason
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame reason for + noun/-ing / reason why / reason to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
46. evidence
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame evidence of/for + noun / evidence that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
47. ability
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame ability to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
48. need
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame need for + noun / need to + verb in other category. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
49. increase
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame increase in + quantity / increase of + amount. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
50. effect
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame effect on + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
51. impact
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame impact on + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
52. advice
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame some advice / a piece of advice. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
53. information
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame some information / a piece of information. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
54. equipment
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame some equipment / a piece of equipment. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
55. research
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame conduct research / a research study. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
56. progress
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame make progress. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
57. homework
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame do homework / an assignment. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
58. news
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame The news is surprising.. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
59. scissors
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame a pair of scissors. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
60. people
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame many people. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
61. take off
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame take off / take + object + off depending sense. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
62. depend
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame depend on + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
63. consist
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame consist of + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
64. belong
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame belong to + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
65. suffer
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame suffer from + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
66. approve
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame approve of + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
67. object
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame object to + noun/-ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
68. insist
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame insist on + noun/-ing / insist that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
69. prevent
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame prevent + object + from -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
70. protect
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame protect + object + from/against. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
71. provide
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame provide + object + with + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
72. supply
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame supply + object + with + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
73. explain
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame explain + noun + to + person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
74. describe
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame describe + noun + to + person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
75. suggest
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame suggest + -ing / that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
76. recommend
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame recommend + -ing / that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
77. avoid
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame avoid + -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
78. enjoy
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame enjoy + -ing/noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
79. consider
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame consider + -ing/noun/that-clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
80. decide
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame decide to + verb / decide that. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
81. hope
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame hope to + verb / hope that. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
82. plan
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame plan to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
83. refuse
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame refuse to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
84. manage
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame manage to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
85. fail
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame fail to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
86. allow
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame allow + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
87. permit
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame permit + object + to + verb / permit -ing. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
88. encourage
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame encourage + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
89. persuade
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame persuade + object + to + verb. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
90. remind
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame remind + object + to + verb / of + noun. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
91. tell
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame tell + object + to + verb / tell + object + clause. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
92. say
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame say + clause / say + noun + to person. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.
93. ask
Near-synonym comparison: choose a semantically close alternative and test whether it can enter exactly the same frame ask + object + to + verb / ask + question. If not, state the grammar difference explicitly.
Frame transformation: change tense, number or clause type while preserving the lexical pattern. This distinguishes stable valency from surface grammatical variation.
Assessment: give the learner the meaning without the word and score both lexical choice and grammatical frame. Full credit requires both.