RETRIEVAL CUES · WORD RECALL · SEMANTIC CUES · CONTEXT CUES · PHONOLOGICAL CUES · ORTHOGRAPHIC CUES · COLLOCATION · MORPHOLOGY · CUED RECALL
Retrieval cues are pieces of information that help stored vocabulary become accessible. A cue can come from meaning, context, sound, spelling, morphology, collocation, grammar, an image, another language or a remembered learning episode. The cue is not the word knowledge itself; it is a route that helps the learner reach that knowledge.
This distinction explains why a learner can “know” a word yet retrieve it only after hearing the first sound, seeing the first letter, receiving a translation or entering the right topic. Different cues reveal different access routes. Strong lexical access eventually requires the learner to succeed with weaker external support and across multiple kinds of cues.
This guide explains semantic cues, contextual cues, phonological cues, orthographic cues, morphological cues, collocational cues, syntactic cues, episodic cues, translation cues, cue overload, cue competition, cue specificity, cue fading and cue diversification. Existing eduKateSG pages on Context Clues and Lexical Access remain untouched.
A cue does not store the word. It opens a door to the word.
2. What a retrieval cue is
A retrieval cue is information that helps a stored lexical item become accessible. The cue can be semantic, phonological, orthographic, morphological, contextual, grammatical, collocational, visual or episodic.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
3. Cue is not memory
A cue does not prove the word is fully accessible. A learner may retrieve only when the first letter, translation or sentence frame is supplied. Stronger memory requires progressively weaker external support.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
4. Semantic cues
Definitions, categories, synonyms, antonyms and conceptual features can cue a target from meaning to form.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
5. Context cues
A sentence or discourse topic can constrain which lexical item is likely, helping both comprehension and production.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
6. Phonological cues
First sound, syllable pattern, rhyme or stress can help recover a partially available spoken form.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
7. Orthographic cues
First letter, letter pattern or visual word shape can support retrieval of written forms, especially when the learner knows meaning but spelling is unstable.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
8. Morphological cues
Roots, prefixes and suffixes can narrow the candidate set and restore family relationships.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
9. Collocational cues
A familiar partner such as strong ___ or make ___ can activate the target through phrase-level association.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
10. Syntactic cues
Word class and sentence structure constrain what kind of lexical item can fit, reducing the search space.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
11. Episodic cues
A remembered teacher, picture, location, story or page can help recover a word through the original learning episode.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
12. Translation cues
An L1 equivalent can provide a direct route to an L2 form, but overdependence can make retrieval narrow and slow in monolingual contexts.
The teaching decision is how much information to reveal. A good cue narrows the search enough for successful retrieval while leaving the learner responsible for reconstructing the target.
13. Visual cues
Images, diagrams and objects are powerful for concrete vocabulary and can also cue technical concepts.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
14. Cue specificity
A cue helps when it overlaps meaningfully with how the item was encoded or with stable lexical structure. Arbitrary cues can support memory but may produce brittle dependence.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
15. Cue overload
A cue becomes less diagnostic when it points to too many possible items. Broad cues such as ‘a good word’ are weak because the candidate set is enormous.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
16. Cue competition
Several cues can activate competing candidates. Retrieval improves when cue combinations converge on one target rather than several neighbours.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
17. Cue fading
Scaffolds should often be removed gradually. The learner moves from full definition to category cue to first letter to no cue, depending on what remains accessible.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
18. Cue diversification
Using several different cues builds multiple routes to the same lexical item, making retrieval less dependent on one prompt.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
19. Testing with cues
Cued recall is easier than free recall and should be interpreted accordingly. The cue level itself is diagnostic information about memory strength.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
20. Production
Meaning-to-word retrieval is the key production route. Useful practice therefore starts from communicative intent and only supplies form cues when access breaks down.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
21. Comprehension
In reading and listening, surrounding linguistic context helps listeners and readers predict and select likely meanings and forms.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
22. Teaching
The best cue is the smallest one that makes successful retrieval possible without giving the answer away. Overhelping reduces the learner’s need to search memory.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
23. AI-era cues
AI can generate hints instantly. Use it as a graduated cue system—category, example, first letter, morphology—rather than as an immediate answer generator.
Cue strength should be interpreted diagnostically. If the learner needs a full definition plus first syllable, access is weaker than if a broad category alone is enough.
24. Retrieval-cue casebook — Cases 1–20
1. Learner knows meaning but cannot say ‘mitigate’
Access problem: semantic-to-form failure. Useful cue: definition cue. Example: reduce but not eliminate. Next move: fade to category then free recall.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
2. Learner needs first letter for ‘ubiquitous’
Access problem: partial form access. Useful cue: orthographic cue. Example: u___. Next move: remove first-letter cue over sessions.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
3. Learner remembers ‘strong ___’ and finds ‘evidence’
Access problem: collocational access. Useful cue: phrase cue. Example: strong evidence. Next move: add other partners such as provide evidence.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
4. Learner sees ‘-tion’ and recalls ‘evaluation’
Access problem: morphological/form cue. Useful cue: suffix pattern. Example: noun-family cue. Next move: connect evaluate/evaluation.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
5. Learner hears first syllable of ‘criterion’
Access problem: phonological cue. Useful cue: cri-. Example: partial sound access. Next move: fade syllable.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
6. Learner remembers classroom picture
Access problem: episodic/visual cue. Useful cue: specific image. Example: picture-bound retrieval. Next move: add verbal cues.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
7. Learner recalls translation only
Access problem: cross-language cue. Useful cue: L1 equivalent. Example: narrow L1 route. Next move: add monolingual definition.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
8. Learner recalls from synonym
Access problem: semantic neighbour cue. Useful cue: near-synonym. Example: reduce → mitigate. Next move: teach boundary too.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
9. Learner recalls from antonym
Access problem: semantic contrast. Useful cue: opposite relation. Example: scarce ↔ abundant. Next move: build direct access.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
10. Learner recalls from category
Access problem: hypernym cue. Useful cue: broader category. Example: orchid → flower. Next move: move toward feature cue.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
11. Learner recalls from example
Access problem: exemplar cue. Useful cue: specific instance. Example: vehicle example → bicycle. Next move: generalise category.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
12. Learner recalls from non-example
Access problem: contrastive cue. Useful cue: boundary. Example: not eliminate → mitigate. Next move: use semantic discrimination.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
13. Learner recalls from sentence topic
Access problem: discourse cue. Useful cue: domain context. Example: finance topic → liquidity. Next move: test outside topic.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
14. Learner recalls from sentence grammar
Access problem: syntactic cue. Useful cue: word-class slot. Example: to ___ the risk → mitigate. Next move: vary grammar later.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
15. Learner recalls from preposition
Access problem: lexical-grammar cue. Useful cue: interested in. Example: preposition pattern. Next move: retrieve whole construction.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
16. Learner recalls from article ‘an’
Access problem: phonological/grammatical cue. Useful cue: vowel onset expectation. Example: an anomaly. Next move: weaken cue.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
17. Learner recalls from rhyme
Access problem: phonological cue. Useful cue: sound neighbour. Example: light/right. Next move: avoid confusing competitor.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
18. Learner recalls from stress pattern
Access problem: prosodic cue. Useful cue: syllable stress. Example: pho-TOG-ra-phy. Next move: bind pronunciation.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
19. Learner recalls spelling but not sound
Access problem: orthographic cue dominates. Useful cue: written form. Example: colonel. Next move: add auditory mapping.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
20. Learner recalls sound but not spelling
Access problem: phonological cue dominates. Useful cue: spoken form. Example: yacht. Next move: add print retrieval.
Minimal-cue test: begin with the weakest plausible hint and strengthen only if retrieval fails. The weakest successful cue tells us more about access strength than immediate full prompting.
Free-recall follow-up: once the cue succeeds, remove it and ask for the word again after a short delay. Supported success should be converted into independent retrieval.
Route diversification: add a second cue type that reaches the same target from another direction so access does not depend on one prompt.
Transfer: change the sentence, topic or mode and test whether the learner can still retrieve the item.
25. Retrieval-cue casebook — Cases 21–40
21. Learner recalls from root ‘bio’
Access problem: morphological cue. Useful cue: life-related root. Example: biology/biography. Next move: verify actual word.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
22. Learner recalls from prefix ‘un-‘
Access problem: morphological cue. Useful cue: negation/reversal. Example: unpredictable. Next move: avoid overgeneralisation.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
23. Learner recalls from suffix ‘-er’
Access problem: morphological cue. Useful cue: agent/instrument pattern. Example: teacher. Next move: compare non-agent -er words.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
24. Learner recalls from word family
Access problem: morphological network. Useful cue: decide → decision. Example: family cue. Next move: switch classes.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
25. Learner recalls from collocation ‘make a’
Access problem: phrase cue. Useful cue: verb-noun partnership. Example: make a decision. Next move: test free noun recall.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
26. Learner recalls from ‘heavy ___’
Access problem: collocational cue. Useful cue: weather/traffic. Example: heavy rain. Next move: contrast strong rain.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
27. Learner recalls from ‘take ___’
Access problem: collocational cue. Useful cue: responsibility/time/action. Example: take responsibility. Next move: vary noun partner.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
28. Learner recalls from idiom context
Access problem: formulaic cue. Useful cue: fixed phrase. Example: spill the beans. Next move: learn whole unit.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
29. Learner recalls phrasal verb from particle
Access problem: multiword cue. Useful cue: up/off/out. Example: give up. Next move: avoid guessing by particle alone.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
30. Learner recalls from visual diagram
Access problem: conceptual visual cue. Useful cue: process image. Example: photosynthesis. Next move: later verbalise.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
31. Learner recalls from real object
Access problem: perceptual cue. Useful cue: concrete referent. Example: stapler. Next move: later retrieve without object.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
32. Learner recalls from gesture
Access problem: motor cue. Useful cue: action-linked word. Example: twist. Next move: move toward verbal cue.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
33. Learner recalls from sound effect
Access problem: auditory cue. Useful cue: onomatopoeic association. Example: buzz. Next move: separate sound from spelling.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
34. Learner recalls from personal memory
Access problem: episodic cue. Useful cue: self-reference. Example: reluctant at event. Next move: generalise beyond event.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
35. Learner recalls from emotional scene
Access problem: affective episodic cue. Useful cue: strong story. Example: devastated. Next move: verify intensity.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
36. Learner recalls from teacher voice
Access problem: contextual episode. Useful cue: speaker-linked memory. Example: technical term. Next move: change speaker/context.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
37. Learner recalls from page location
Access problem: spatial cue. Useful cue: visual position. Example: word at top left. Next move: shuffle layout.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
38. Learner recalls from list order
Access problem: serial cue. Useful cue: sequence. Example: word after previous item. Next move: randomise order.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
39. Learner recalls from flashcard color
Access problem: incidental cue. Useful cue: surface feature. Example: red card target. Next move: remove color dependence.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
40. Learner recalls from mnemonic
Access problem: artificial cue. Useful cue: constructed association. Example: spelling mnemonic. Next move: transition to direct retrieval.
Cue specificity: ask how many words the cue could plausibly activate. Highly diagnostic cues reduce the candidate set; broad cues may create overload.
Competition check: identify the strongest wrong candidate triggered by the cue. Good cue design should increase activation of the target without strengthening the competitor.
Form/meaning balance: if the cue gives meaning, later test form; if it gives form, later test meaning. A cue should not hide the component that actually needs strengthening.
Fading rule: on the next successful trial, remove part of the cue so access gradually moves toward independence.
26. Retrieval-cue casebook — Cases 41–60
41. Learner recalls from acronym expansion
Access problem: form/semantic cue. Useful cue: initial letters. Example: NASA. Next move: retrieve both label and concept.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
42. Learner recalls from abbreviation
Access problem: form cue. Useful cue: shortened label. Example: exam → examination. Next move: switch directions.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
43. Learner recalls from definition keyword
Access problem: semantic cue. Useful cue: single diagnostic feature. Example: a formal rule → criterion. Next move: avoid one-keyword dependence.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
44. Learner recalls from multiple features
Access problem: convergent cueing. Useful cue: category + function + context. Example: thermometer. Next move: stronger diagnostic retrieval.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
45. Learner gets wrong word from broad cue
Access problem: cue overload. Useful cue: too many candidates. Example: ‘a positive adjective’. Next move: narrow cue.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
46. Learner gets synonym instead of target
Access problem: semantic competition. Useful cue: near-neighbour activation. Example: possible/plausible. Next move: add register/strength cue.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
47. Learner gets cognate-like wrong word
Access problem: cross-language competition. Useful cue: false friend. Example: actual/current confusion. Next move: explicit L1-L2 contrast.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
48. Learner gets homophone
Access problem: phonological competition. Useful cue: same sound. Example: principal/principle. Next move: add semantic/spelling cue.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
49. Learner gets orthographic neighbour
Access problem: visual competition. Useful cue: similar spelling. Example: quiet/quite. Next move: use pronunciation + grammar.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
50. Learner gets family member
Access problem: morphological competition. Useful cue: related form. Example: analyse/analysis. Next move: use syntactic slot.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
51. Learner recalls only with multiple choice
Access problem: recognition cue dependence. Useful cue: high external support. Example: correct option visible. Next move: move to cued recall.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
52. Learner recalls with definition but not picture
Access problem: cue-route asymmetry. Useful cue: semantic stronger than visual. Example: definition works. Next move: add visual-semantic mapping only if useful.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
53. Learner recalls with picture but not definition
Access problem: visual dependence. Useful cue: concept label weak. Example: image works. Next move: add verbal description.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
54. Learner recalls with L1 but not L2 context
Access problem: translation dependence. Useful cue: cross-language route dominant. Example: L1 works. Next move: monolingual retrieval.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
55. Learner recalls in same topic only
Access problem: topic dependence. Useful cue: domain cue dominant. Example: science context works. Next move: cross-topic transfer.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
56. Learner recalls in writing not speaking
Access problem: mode cue asymmetry. Useful cue: orthographic route stronger. Example: print works. Next move: oral cue training.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
57. Learner recalls in speaking not writing
Access problem: mode cue asymmetry. Useful cue: phonological route stronger. Example: sound works. Next move: spelling retrieval.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
58. Learner recalls after first letter then later freely
Access problem: cue fading success. Useful cue: strengthening access. Example: partial → free. Next move: extend spacing.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
59. Learner needs stronger cues over time
Access problem: memory weakening. Useful cue: access decays. Example: definition → first syllable? actually stronger form cue. Next move: shorten interval.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
60. Learner spontaneously recalls without prompt
Access problem: independent access. Useful cue: cue internalised. Example: free recall. Next move: maintain naturally.
Mode check: test whether the cue works in reading, listening, speaking and writing as relevant. Cue effectiveness can be mode-specific.
Delay check: retest after time has passed. If the same strong cue is still required repeatedly, the route is not becoming more independent.
Context check: move away from the original learning environment. Episodic and topic cues are helpful beginnings but should not become permanent requirements.
Independence criterion: a high-value word should eventually be retrievable from communicative meaning alone, with form, grammar and collocation available quickly enough for the task.
27. The retrieval-cue ladder
1. Free recall
Give only the communicative intention or definition. This is the strongest evidence of independent lexical access.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
2. Broad semantic cue
Give a category, purpose or conceptual feature without revealing form.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
3. Contrastive semantic cue
Give a synonym, antonym or boundary clue that distinguishes the target from neighbours.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
4. Context cue
Provide a sentence or topic that constrains likely vocabulary.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
5. Collocational cue
Provide a familiar phrase partner or frame.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
6. Syntactic cue
Reveal word class or grammatical slot.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
7. Morphological cue
Reveal root, prefix, suffix or word-family information.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
8. First-letter cue
Reveal the first written letter.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
9. First-sound cue
Reveal the initial phoneme or syllable.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
10. Partial-form cue
Reveal several letters or syllables.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
11. Recognition cue
Show several alternatives including the target.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
12. Full answer
Reveal the item, then immediately hide it and require retrieval.
Move down the ladder only when weaker cues fail, then move upward again across later trials. The goal is not to keep the learner successful at any cost; it is to find the least support that produces correct reconstruction.
28. Designing cue systems that build independence
1. Use meaning before form when productive vocabulary is the goal
Meaning-to-form retrieval resembles real speaking and writing more closely than copying a visible word.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
2. Use form cues when form is the bottleneck
If meaning is secure but pronunciation or spelling fails, a phonological or orthographic cue directly targets the weak representation.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
3. Avoid permanent translation dependence
Translation can be efficient, but add monolingual semantic and contextual cues so the target can operate without L1 mediation.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
4. Vary retrieval cues
Different cues build multiple paths and reduce context dependence.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
5. Keep competitors visible when discrimination matters
For near-synonyms or false friends, cueing only the target may not repair the selection problem.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
6. Record cue strength
Tracking the weakest successful cue turns vague impressions of knowing into measurable access data.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
7. Fade cues over time
Support should decrease as memory strengthens, otherwise the task measures scaffold use rather than lexical access.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
8. Retest without cues
Every supported retrieval should eventually lead to a free-recall test after delay.
A cue system is successful when learners need less external information across time while maintaining or improving accuracy. Increasing independence is the central outcome.
29. Frequently asked questions
What is a retrieval cue?
Information that helps a stored word become accessible.
What are semantic cues?
Meaning-based prompts such as definitions, categories, synonyms or contrasts.
What are phonological cues?
Sound-based prompts such as first phoneme, syllable or stress pattern.
What are orthographic cues?
Written-form prompts such as first letter or letter pattern.
What are collocational cues?
Familiar word partners or phrase frames that help activate a target.
Is cued recall the same as free recall?
No. Cued recall provides external support and is easier.
Can a cue become a crutch?
Yes. If the learner always needs the same prompt, access remains cue-dependent.
Why use multiple cues?
Multiple routes make retrieval more flexible and less dependent on one context.
What is cue overload?
A cue activates too many possible targets to be diagnostic.
What is the simplest rule?
Give the smallest hint that makes retrieval possible, then fade it.
30. Research grounding
Cambridge vocabulary research emphasises that semantic context supplies orthographic, syntactic and meaning information that can support storage and retrieval. Research on multiword items likewise treats retrieval of lexical forms as a prerequisite for production and examines intra-lexical, usage-based and cross-language determinants of retrievability. Nation’s work on learning from context explains how linguistic clues constrain unknown word meaning, while current word-learning research shows that context can substantially narrow candidate meanings.
- Cambridge — Semantic context and vocabulary storage/retrieval
- Cambridge — Retrievability of L2 multiword items
- Cambridge — Learning words from context
- Cambridge — Linguistic context in word learning
31. eduKateSG routes
- Lexical Access
- Lexical Inferencing and Context Clues
- Relearning and Savings
- Vocabulary Retention
- Vocabulary Master Router
32. Final model
Retrieval cues reveal the routes into a lexical memory. The cue that succeeds tells us something about which part of the representation remains accessible.
Strong vocabulary eventually needs less external support, but carefully designed cues are how teachers and learners get from failed recall to successful independent access.
Hint less as memory grows stronger.
33. Case-specific cue fading lab
1. Learner knows meaning but cannot say ‘mitigate’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than definition cue. If retrieval fails, restore definition cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade to category then free recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
2. Learner needs first letter for ‘ubiquitous’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than orthographic cue. If retrieval fails, restore orthographic cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: remove first-letter cue over sessions. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
3. Learner remembers ‘strong ___’ and finds ‘evidence’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than phrase cue. If retrieval fails, restore phrase cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add other partners such as provide evidence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
4. Learner sees ‘-tion’ and recalls ‘evaluation’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than suffix pattern. If retrieval fails, restore suffix pattern, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: connect evaluate/evaluation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
5. Learner hears first syllable of ‘criterion’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cri-. If retrieval fails, restore cri-, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade syllable. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
6. Learner remembers classroom picture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific image. If retrieval fails, restore specific image, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add verbal cues. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
7. Learner recalls translation only
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than L1 equivalent. If retrieval fails, restore L1 equivalent, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add monolingual definition. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
8. Learner recalls from synonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than near-synonym. If retrieval fails, restore near-synonym, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: teach boundary too. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
9. Learner recalls from antonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than opposite relation. If retrieval fails, restore opposite relation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: build direct access. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
10. Learner recalls from category
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than broader category. If retrieval fails, restore broader category, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move toward feature cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
11. Learner recalls from example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific instance. If retrieval fails, restore specific instance, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: generalise category. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
12. Learner recalls from non-example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than boundary. If retrieval fails, restore boundary, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use semantic discrimination. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
13. Learner recalls from sentence topic
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than domain context. If retrieval fails, restore domain context, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: test outside topic. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
14. Learner recalls from sentence grammar
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than word-class slot. If retrieval fails, restore word-class slot, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: vary grammar later. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
15. Learner recalls from preposition
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than interested in. If retrieval fails, restore interested in, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: retrieve whole construction. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
16. Learner recalls from article ‘an’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than vowel onset expectation. If retrieval fails, restore vowel onset expectation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: weaken cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
17. Learner recalls from rhyme
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than sound neighbour. If retrieval fails, restore sound neighbour, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid confusing competitor. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
18. Learner recalls from stress pattern
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than syllable stress. If retrieval fails, restore syllable stress, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: bind pronunciation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
19. Learner recalls spelling but not sound
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than written form. If retrieval fails, restore written form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add auditory mapping. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
20. Learner recalls sound but not spelling
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than spoken form. If retrieval fails, restore spoken form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add print retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
21. Learner recalls from root ‘bio’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than life-related root. If retrieval fails, restore life-related root, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: verify actual word. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
22. Learner recalls from prefix ‘un-‘
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than negation/reversal. If retrieval fails, restore negation/reversal, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid overgeneralisation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
23. Learner recalls from suffix ‘-er’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than agent/instrument pattern. If retrieval fails, restore agent/instrument pattern, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: compare non-agent -er words. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
24. Learner recalls from word family
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than decide → decision. If retrieval fails, restore decide → decision, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: switch classes. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
25. Learner recalls from collocation ‘make a’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than verb-noun partnership. If retrieval fails, restore verb-noun partnership, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: test free noun recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
26. Learner recalls from ‘heavy ___’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than weather/traffic. If retrieval fails, restore weather/traffic, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: contrast strong rain. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
27. Learner recalls from ‘take ___’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than responsibility/time/action. If retrieval fails, restore responsibility/time/action, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: vary noun partner. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
28. Learner recalls from idiom context
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than fixed phrase. If retrieval fails, restore fixed phrase, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: learn whole unit. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
29. Learner recalls phrasal verb from particle
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than up/off/out. If retrieval fails, restore up/off/out, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid guessing by particle alone. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
30. Learner recalls from visual diagram
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than process image. If retrieval fails, restore process image, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: later verbalise. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
31. Learner recalls from real object
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than concrete referent. If retrieval fails, restore concrete referent, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: later retrieve without object. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
32. Learner recalls from gesture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than action-linked word. If retrieval fails, restore action-linked word, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move toward verbal cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
33. Learner recalls from sound effect
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than onomatopoeic association. If retrieval fails, restore onomatopoeic association, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: separate sound from spelling. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
34. Learner recalls from personal memory
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than self-reference. If retrieval fails, restore self-reference, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: generalise beyond event. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
35. Learner recalls from emotional scene
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than strong story. If retrieval fails, restore strong story, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: verify intensity. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
36. Learner recalls from teacher voice
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than speaker-linked memory. If retrieval fails, restore speaker-linked memory, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: change speaker/context. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
37. Learner recalls from page location
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than visual position. If retrieval fails, restore visual position, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: shuffle layout. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
38. Learner recalls from list order
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than sequence. If retrieval fails, restore sequence, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: randomise order. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
39. Learner recalls from flashcard color
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than surface feature. If retrieval fails, restore surface feature, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: remove color dependence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
40. Learner recalls from mnemonic
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than constructed association. If retrieval fails, restore constructed association, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: transition to direct retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
41. Learner recalls from acronym expansion
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than initial letters. If retrieval fails, restore initial letters, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: retrieve both label and concept. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
42. Learner recalls from abbreviation
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than shortened label. If retrieval fails, restore shortened label, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: switch directions. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
43. Learner recalls from definition keyword
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than single diagnostic feature. If retrieval fails, restore single diagnostic feature, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid one-keyword dependence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
44. Learner recalls from multiple features
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than category + function + context. If retrieval fails, restore category + function + context, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: stronger diagnostic retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
45. Learner gets wrong word from broad cue
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than too many candidates. If retrieval fails, restore too many candidates, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: narrow cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
46. Learner gets synonym instead of target
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than near-neighbour activation. If retrieval fails, restore near-neighbour activation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add register/strength cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
47. Learner gets cognate-like wrong word
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than false friend. If retrieval fails, restore false friend, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: explicit L1-L2 contrast. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
48. Learner gets homophone
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than same sound. If retrieval fails, restore same sound, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add semantic/spelling cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
49. Learner gets orthographic neighbour
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than similar spelling. If retrieval fails, restore similar spelling, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use pronunciation + grammar. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
50. Learner gets family member
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than related form. If retrieval fails, restore related form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use syntactic slot. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
51. Learner recalls only with multiple choice
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than high external support. If retrieval fails, restore high external support, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move to cued recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
52. Learner recalls with definition but not picture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than semantic stronger than visual. If retrieval fails, restore semantic stronger than visual, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add visual-semantic mapping only if useful. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
53. Learner recalls with picture but not definition
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than concept label weak. If retrieval fails, restore concept label weak, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add verbal description. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
54. Learner recalls with L1 but not L2 context
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cross-language route dominant. If retrieval fails, restore cross-language route dominant, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: monolingual retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
55. Learner recalls in same topic only
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than domain cue dominant. If retrieval fails, restore domain cue dominant, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: cross-topic transfer. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
56. Learner recalls in writing not speaking
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than orthographic route stronger. If retrieval fails, restore orthographic route stronger, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: oral cue training. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
57. Learner recalls in speaking not writing
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than phonological route stronger. If retrieval fails, restore phonological route stronger, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: spelling retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
58. Learner recalls after first letter then later freely
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than strengthening access. If retrieval fails, restore strengthening access, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: extend spacing. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
59. Learner needs stronger cues over time
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than access decays. If retrieval fails, restore access decays, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: shorten interval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
60. Learner spontaneously recalls without prompt
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cue internalised. If retrieval fails, restore cue internalised, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: maintain naturally. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
61. Learner knows meaning but cannot say ‘mitigate’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than definition cue. If retrieval fails, restore definition cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade to category then free recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
62. Learner needs first letter for ‘ubiquitous’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than orthographic cue. If retrieval fails, restore orthographic cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: remove first-letter cue over sessions. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
63. Learner remembers ‘strong ___’ and finds ‘evidence’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than phrase cue. If retrieval fails, restore phrase cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add other partners such as provide evidence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
64. Learner sees ‘-tion’ and recalls ‘evaluation’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than suffix pattern. If retrieval fails, restore suffix pattern, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: connect evaluate/evaluation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
65. Learner hears first syllable of ‘criterion’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cri-. If retrieval fails, restore cri-, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade syllable. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
66. Learner remembers classroom picture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific image. If retrieval fails, restore specific image, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add verbal cues. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
67. Learner recalls translation only
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than L1 equivalent. If retrieval fails, restore L1 equivalent, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add monolingual definition. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
68. Learner recalls from synonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than near-synonym. If retrieval fails, restore near-synonym, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: teach boundary too. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
69. Learner recalls from antonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than opposite relation. If retrieval fails, restore opposite relation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: build direct access. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
70. Learner recalls from category
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than broader category. If retrieval fails, restore broader category, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move toward feature cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
71. Learner recalls from example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific instance. If retrieval fails, restore specific instance, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: generalise category. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
72. Learner recalls from non-example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than boundary. If retrieval fails, restore boundary, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use semantic discrimination. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
73. Learner recalls from sentence topic
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than domain context. If retrieval fails, restore domain context, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: test outside topic. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
74. Learner recalls from sentence grammar
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than word-class slot. If retrieval fails, restore word-class slot, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: vary grammar later. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
75. Learner recalls from preposition
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than interested in. If retrieval fails, restore interested in, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: retrieve whole construction. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
76. Learner recalls from article ‘an’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than vowel onset expectation. If retrieval fails, restore vowel onset expectation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: weaken cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
77. Learner recalls from rhyme
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than sound neighbour. If retrieval fails, restore sound neighbour, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid confusing competitor. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
78. Learner recalls from stress pattern
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than syllable stress. If retrieval fails, restore syllable stress, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: bind pronunciation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
79. Learner recalls spelling but not sound
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than written form. If retrieval fails, restore written form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add auditory mapping. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
80. Learner recalls sound but not spelling
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than spoken form. If retrieval fails, restore spoken form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add print retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
81. Learner recalls from root ‘bio’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than life-related root. If retrieval fails, restore life-related root, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: verify actual word. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
82. Learner recalls from prefix ‘un-‘
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than negation/reversal. If retrieval fails, restore negation/reversal, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid overgeneralisation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
83. Learner recalls from suffix ‘-er’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than agent/instrument pattern. If retrieval fails, restore agent/instrument pattern, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: compare non-agent -er words. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
84. Learner recalls from word family
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than decide → decision. If retrieval fails, restore decide → decision, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: switch classes. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
85. Learner recalls from collocation ‘make a’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than verb-noun partnership. If retrieval fails, restore verb-noun partnership, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: test free noun recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
86. Learner recalls from ‘heavy ___’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than weather/traffic. If retrieval fails, restore weather/traffic, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: contrast strong rain. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
87. Learner recalls from ‘take ___’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than responsibility/time/action. If retrieval fails, restore responsibility/time/action, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: vary noun partner. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
88. Learner recalls from idiom context
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than fixed phrase. If retrieval fails, restore fixed phrase, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: learn whole unit. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
89. Learner recalls phrasal verb from particle
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than up/off/out. If retrieval fails, restore up/off/out, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid guessing by particle alone. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
90. Learner recalls from visual diagram
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than process image. If retrieval fails, restore process image, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: later verbalise. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
91. Learner recalls from real object
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than concrete referent. If retrieval fails, restore concrete referent, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: later retrieve without object. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
92. Learner recalls from gesture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than action-linked word. If retrieval fails, restore action-linked word, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move toward verbal cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
93. Learner recalls from sound effect
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than onomatopoeic association. If retrieval fails, restore onomatopoeic association, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: separate sound from spelling. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
94. Learner recalls from personal memory
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than self-reference. If retrieval fails, restore self-reference, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: generalise beyond event. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
95. Learner recalls from emotional scene
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than strong story. If retrieval fails, restore strong story, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: verify intensity. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
96. Learner recalls from teacher voice
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than speaker-linked memory. If retrieval fails, restore speaker-linked memory, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: change speaker/context. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
97. Learner recalls from page location
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than visual position. If retrieval fails, restore visual position, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: shuffle layout. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
98. Learner recalls from list order
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than sequence. If retrieval fails, restore sequence, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: randomise order. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
99. Learner recalls from flashcard color
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than surface feature. If retrieval fails, restore surface feature, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: remove color dependence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
100. Learner recalls from mnemonic
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than constructed association. If retrieval fails, restore constructed association, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: transition to direct retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
101. Learner recalls from acronym expansion
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than initial letters. If retrieval fails, restore initial letters, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: retrieve both label and concept. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
102. Learner recalls from abbreviation
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than shortened label. If retrieval fails, restore shortened label, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: switch directions. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
103. Learner recalls from definition keyword
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than single diagnostic feature. If retrieval fails, restore single diagnostic feature, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: avoid one-keyword dependence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
104. Learner recalls from multiple features
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than category + function + context. If retrieval fails, restore category + function + context, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: stronger diagnostic retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
105. Learner gets wrong word from broad cue
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than too many candidates. If retrieval fails, restore too many candidates, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: narrow cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
106. Learner gets synonym instead of target
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than near-neighbour activation. If retrieval fails, restore near-neighbour activation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add register/strength cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
107. Learner gets cognate-like wrong word
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than false friend. If retrieval fails, restore false friend, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: explicit L1-L2 contrast. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
108. Learner gets homophone
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than same sound. If retrieval fails, restore same sound, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add semantic/spelling cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
109. Learner gets orthographic neighbour
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than similar spelling. If retrieval fails, restore similar spelling, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use pronunciation + grammar. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
110. Learner gets family member
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than related form. If retrieval fails, restore related form, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use syntactic slot. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
111. Learner recalls only with multiple choice
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than high external support. If retrieval fails, restore high external support, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move to cued recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
112. Learner recalls with definition but not picture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than semantic stronger than visual. If retrieval fails, restore semantic stronger than visual, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add visual-semantic mapping only if useful. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
113. Learner recalls with picture but not definition
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than concept label weak. If retrieval fails, restore concept label weak, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add verbal description. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
114. Learner recalls with L1 but not L2 context
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cross-language route dominant. If retrieval fails, restore cross-language route dominant, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: monolingual retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
115. Learner recalls in same topic only
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than domain cue dominant. If retrieval fails, restore domain cue dominant, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: cross-topic transfer. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
116. Learner recalls in writing not speaking
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than orthographic route stronger. If retrieval fails, restore orthographic route stronger, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: oral cue training. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
117. Learner recalls in speaking not writing
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than phonological route stronger. If retrieval fails, restore phonological route stronger, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: spelling retrieval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
118. Learner recalls after first letter then later freely
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than strengthening access. If retrieval fails, restore strengthening access, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: extend spacing. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
119. Learner needs stronger cues over time
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than access decays. If retrieval fails, restore access decays, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: shorten interval. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
120. Learner spontaneously recalls without prompt
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cue internalised. If retrieval fails, restore cue internalised, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: maintain naturally. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
121. Learner knows meaning but cannot say ‘mitigate’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than definition cue. If retrieval fails, restore definition cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade to category then free recall. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
122. Learner needs first letter for ‘ubiquitous’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than orthographic cue. If retrieval fails, restore orthographic cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: remove first-letter cue over sessions. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
123. Learner remembers ‘strong ___’ and finds ‘evidence’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than phrase cue. If retrieval fails, restore phrase cue, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add other partners such as provide evidence. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
124. Learner sees ‘-tion’ and recalls ‘evaluation’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than suffix pattern. If retrieval fails, restore suffix pattern, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: connect evaluate/evaluation. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
125. Learner hears first syllable of ‘criterion’
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than cri-. If retrieval fails, restore cri-, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: fade syllable. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
126. Learner remembers classroom picture
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific image. If retrieval fails, restore specific image, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add verbal cues. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
127. Learner recalls translation only
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than L1 equivalent. If retrieval fails, restore L1 equivalent, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: add monolingual definition. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
128. Learner recalls from synonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than near-synonym. If retrieval fails, restore near-synonym, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: teach boundary too. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
129. Learner recalls from antonym
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than opposite relation. If retrieval fails, restore opposite relation, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: build direct access. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
130. Learner recalls from category
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than broader category. If retrieval fails, restore broader category, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: move toward feature cue. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
131. Learner recalls from example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than specific instance. If retrieval fails, restore specific instance, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: generalise category. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
132. Learner recalls from non-example
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than boundary. If retrieval fails, restore boundary, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: use semantic discrimination. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.
133. Learner recalls from sentence topic
Weakest-cue challenge: begin one step weaker than domain context. If retrieval fails, restore domain context, then immediately test again without it. This converts support into practice rather than permanent dependence.
Competitor check: record any wrong word produced before the target. Wrong candidates reveal the active lexical neighbourhood and can guide future contrastive cues.
Future plan: test outside topic. On the next session, change the context and test whether the word can be retrieved from meaning alone.