THE MASTERY CLUB · INFORMATION STRUCTURE · TOPIC → GIVEN → NEW → FOCUS → EMPHASIS → WORD ORDER → PROSODY → DISCOURSE
Information structure is the system that helps speakers and writers package the same basic proposition differently depending on what the listener already knows, what the sentence is about, which information is new, and what deserves contrast or emphasis. It includes topic and focus, given and new information, theme and rheme, contrastive focus, broad focus, narrow focus, presupposition and assertion, cleft sentences, passive voice, word order, stress, intonation and discourse context. A sentence such as Mira solved the puzzle can answer “What happened?”, “Who solved the puzzle?” or “What did Mira solve?”—but the most natural stress and wording can change because the information structure changes.
For readers searching for what is information structure, topic and focus, given and new information, theme and rheme, focus in linguistics, contrastive focus, sentence emphasis, cleft sentences, topic-comment structure or how word order changes meaning and emphasis, the central idea is packaging. Grammar does not only describe who did what. It also tells the listener how the speaker wants that proposition organised in the current conversation. The same event can be packaged around a different topic, a different focus or a different assumption about what is already shared.
This article is the canonical Information Structure owner inside The Mastery Club Vocabulary apex. It is additive and leaves existing eduKateSG pages unchanged. For sentence-pattern meaning, use Vocabulary | Construction Grammar. For context-driven word interpretation, use Vocabulary | Lexical Pragmatics. For the translation-specific problem, the existing Translate | Information Structure remains the specialist owner. This page owns the vocabulary-and-sentence map for topic, focus, givenness and communicative prominence.
The 60-Second Answer
Information structure links sentence form with what speakers assume about the listener’s knowledge and attention. A topic is roughly what the sentence is organised around; focus marks the information that is especially informative, contrastive or new in that context. Given information is treated as already accessible; new information advances the discourse. Languages signal these relations through word order, particles, morphology, clefts, passives and especially prosody.
The practical benefit is precision. A writer can choose passive voice to keep the same topic across sentences, use a cleft to highlight a contrast, or place known information before new information to reduce processing load. A speaker can move stress from MIRA solved the puzzle to Mira solved the PUZZLE and change the focus while keeping the same basic words.
1. Information Structure Connects Grammar and Discourse
Information structure explains how sentence form reflects assumptions about what is known, salient or contrastive in context. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
2. Topic
The topic is the entity, issue or discourse referent around which a clause is organised. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
3. Comment
The comment says something about the topic. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
4. Focus
Focus identifies the most informative, contrastive or discourse-relevant part of an utterance. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
5. Given Information
Given information is treated as accessible from prior discourse or shared context. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
6. New Information
New information advances the discourse by adding material not treated as already established. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
7. Theme and Rheme
Theme–rheme terminology offers another way to describe how messages organise starting point and development. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
8. Presupposition and Assertion
Many information-structure analyses distinguish backgrounded presupposed material from asserted focal information. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
9. Broad Focus
Broad focus places an entire clause or large constituent in focus, as in answers to What happened? The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
10. Narrow Focus
Narrow focus highlights one smaller constituent, as in answers to Who did it? The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
11. Contrastive Focus
Contrastive focus selects one alternative against other plausible alternatives. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
12. Corrective Focus
Corrective focus explicitly repairs a prior assumption or statement. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
13. Presentational Focus
Presentational structures introduce a new entity or event into discourse. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
14. Topic Continuity
Writers often preserve an established topic across adjacent sentences to support cohesion. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
15. Topic Shift
A change in topic can be marked through wording, discourse markers or paragraph structure. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
16. Focus Projection
Prosodic prominence on one element can license wider focus depending on sentence structure. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
17. Focus Alternatives
Focus often evokes a set of alternatives against which the selected expression is interpreted. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
18. Question–Answer Congruence
The structure of a question strongly predicts where focus falls in the answer. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
19. Prosodic Focus
English frequently uses pitch accent and stress to mark focus in speech. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
20. Deaccenting
Given or predictable material can receive reduced prosodic prominence. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
21. Nuclear Stress
The location of the strongest sentence stress often helps listeners identify focus. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
22. Contrastive Stress
Moving stress changes which alternative the speaker contrasts. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
23. Word Order
Languages can manipulate word order to align topic, focus and information status. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
24. English Word Order
English relies on relatively fixed syntax but still uses fronting, clefts, passives and prosody for information structure. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
25. Fronting
Moving a constituent to the front can mark topic, contrast or discourse continuity. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
26. Topicalisation
Topicalisation promotes an element to a topic-like position. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
27. Left Dislocation
A detached noun phrase can establish a topic before a resumptive clause. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
28. Right Dislocation
A phrase can be placed after the clause to clarify or reinforce an already accessible referent. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
29. Passive Voice
Passive constructions can keep an affected participant as topic or foreground a result. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
30. Active Voice
Active clauses often align Agent and subject, but information structure can still vary through stress and context. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
31. It-Clefts
It was Mira who solved it isolates one focused constituent. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
32. Wh-Clefts
What Mira solved was the puzzle packages a focused value through a relative-like clause. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
33. Pseudoclefts
Pseudoclefts create topic-like and focus-like partitions in one construction. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
34. Inverted Pseudoclefts
The puzzle was what Mira solved reverses the usual pseudocleft order for discourse purposes. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
35. Existential There
There is a problem introduces a new referent while postponing the lexical subject. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
36. Presentational There
There appeared a figure on the hill packages a new participant as discourse-new. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
37. Extraposition
It is important to verify the source postpones a heavy clause and foregrounds evaluation. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
38. Heavy-NP Shift
Long constituents can be placed later to balance processing and information flow. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
39. End Weight
English often places longer, heavier or newer material toward the end of a clause. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
40. End Focus
New or focal information frequently appears near clause endings in neutral written style. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
41. Old Before New
Placing familiar information before new information can reduce processing demands. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
42. Definite Expressions
Definite noun phrases often signal accessible or identifiable referents. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
43. Indefinite Expressions
Indefinite noun phrases often introduce new referents, though context can override this tendency. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
44. Pronouns
Pronouns typically track highly accessible discourse referents. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
45. Demonstratives
This and that can manage attention and discourse distance as well as physical deixis. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
46. Proper Names
Names can be given or new depending on whether the referent is already active in discourse. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
47. Lexical Repetition
Repeating a noun can maintain topic clarity when a pronoun would be ambiguous. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
48. Synonymic Variation
Changing vocabulary while maintaining reference can alter cohesion and information flow. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
49. Information Structure and Reference Chains
Reference choices interact with topic continuity across sentences. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
50. Information Structure and Lexical Cohesion
Word repetition, semantic relations and topic chains help readers track what remains central. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
51. Information Structure and Construction Grammar
Constructions such as clefts and passives package information in conventional ways. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
52. Information Structure and Semantic Roles
The participant selected as topic or focus need not be the Agent. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
53. Information Structure and Event Structure
Focus can highlight an endpoint, result, cause or participant within the same event. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
54. Information Structure and Lexical Pragmatics
Context determines which information counts as given, contrastive or relevant. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
55. Information Structure and Discourse Markers
Markers such as now, anyway and so can signal topic changes or discourse progression. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
56. Information Structure and Register
Conversation relies heavily on prosody; formal writing relies more on syntax and explicit discourse organisation. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
57. Information Structure and Genre
News, academic writing, narrative and conversation package given/new information differently. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
58. Academic Writing
Academic prose often places established concepts early and introduces new claims later in the clause. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
59. Scientific Writing
Passives and nominalisations can maintain topical continuity around processes, methods or results. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
60. Narrative
Narrative information structure guides attention among characters, settings, actions and reveals. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
61. Dialogue
Spoken exchanges constantly update topic and focus through question–answer structure. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
62. Instructions
Clear instructions keep the object or task topic stable while introducing one action at a time. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
63. Explanations
Explanatory writing often links a known cause or system component to a new consequence. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
64. Argumentation
Writers can focus one contrast while backgrounding shared assumptions. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
65. Topic Sentences
Paragraph openings frequently establish a discourse topic for later development. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
66. Paragraph Progression
Good paragraphs move from accessible information toward new detail without losing the topic chain. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
67. Given–New Chains
Each sentence can reuse part of previous information as the launch point for the next sentence. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
68. Constant Theme Progression
Several sentences can maintain one topic while adding new predicates. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
69. Linear Theme Progression
A new element in one sentence can become the topic of the next. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
70. Split Progression
A sentence can introduce several subtopics that later receive separate development. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
71. Information Structure in Listening
Listeners use prosody and discourse context to identify what matters most in real time. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
72. Information Structure in Speaking
Speakers adjust stress and ordering to match what the listener needs next. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
73. Information Structure in Reading
Readers infer topic continuity and focus from syntax, punctuation and lexical repetition. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
74. Information Structure in Writing
Writers control emphasis and coherence through clause packaging. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
75. Second-Language Learning
Learners may transfer topic-focus patterns from another language into English. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
76. Cross-Linguistic Variation
Languages differ greatly in how they mark topic and focus through word order, particles, morphology and prosody. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
77. Topic-Prominent Languages
Some languages organise discourse more strongly around explicit topic constructions. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
78. Focus Particles
Particles such as only, even and also interact with focus and alternatives. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
79. Only
Only identifies a restricted set of alternatives and is highly sensitive to scope and placement. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
80. Even
Even marks an alternative as unexpected relative to a contextual scale. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
81. Also and Too
Additive particles presuppose or evoke another relevant alternative. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
82. Focus and Negation
Negation can target different constituents depending on stress and scope. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
83. Focus and Quantifiers
All, some, only and most interact with focus to shape interpretation. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
84. Focus and Ambiguity
Unclear stress or punctuation can produce more than one plausible focus interpretation. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
85. Information Structure and Translation
Translators must preserve discourse prominence even when target-language word order differs. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
86. Information Structure and Summarising
Good summaries preserve central topic and main focus while deleting low-priority detail. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
87. Information Structure and Paraphrase
A paraphrase can preserve propositional content while accidentally changing emphasis or topic. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
88. Information Structure and Editing
Editing can improve flow by aligning sentence openings with established context. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
89. Information Structure Assessment
Learners should explain what is being contrasted or foregrounded rather than only label constructions. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
90. The Mastery Club Rule for Information Structure
Ask what the sentence is about, what is already accessible, what is new, and what the speaker wants the listener to notice most. The vocabulary lesson is to connect lexical choice with discourse position and communicative prominence, not to treat word order as a purely mechanical grammar rule.
A practical analysis begins by writing the question the sentence is answering. Then mark the topic, the focal information and what the speaker assumes to be already accessible. Change the question and observe whether the most natural stress or syntax changes.
Next compare two packaging choices that preserve roughly the same event content. Active/passive alternation, clefting, fronting or lexical repetition can change what is foregrounded. The learner should explain the discourse effect rather than merely identify the construction name.
For production, give a paragraph context and ask for the next sentence. Strong information-structure control means the sentence connects to the existing topic while placing genuinely new information where the reader can process it efficiently.
80 Information-Structure Case Studies
1. Mira solved the puzzle.
Packaging: broad focus. Context question: What happened?. Entire event can be new.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
2. MIRA solved the puzzle.
Packaging: narrow subject focus. Context question: Who solved it?. Stress selects Mira against alternatives.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
3. Mira solved the PUZZLE.
Packaging: narrow object focus. Context question: What did Mira solve?. Object receives focal prominence.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
4. Mira SOLVED the puzzle.
Packaging: verb focus. Context question: What did Mira do with it?. Stress contrasts solving with another action.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
5. It was Mira who solved the puzzle.
Packaging: it-cleft. Context question: Mira is focal. Construction isolates the identity of the solver.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
6. What Mira solved was the puzzle.
Packaging: pseudocleft. Context question: puzzle is focal value. Open variable is resolved after the copula.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
7. The puzzle was solved by Mira.
Packaging: passive. Context question: puzzle as topic; Mira optional focus. Affected entity becomes grammatical subject.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
8. The puzzle, Mira solved.
Packaging: topicalisation. Context question: puzzle established as topic. Marked word order foregrounds discourse relation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
9. There is a problem.
Packaging: existential. Context question: problem introduced as new. Existential there delays the lexical subject.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
10. Here comes the bus.
Packaging: presentational. Context question: bus enters attention. Construction presents an arriving entity.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
11. A book arrived. It was damaged.
Packaging: given pronoun. Context question: book remains accessible. Pronoun maintains topic continuity.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
12. A book arrived. The BOOK was damaged.
Packaging: contrastive/reaccented noun. Context question: book may contrast with another object. Lexical repetition with stress changes discourse effect.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
13. A book arrived. The cover was torn.
Packaging: bridging progression. Context question: cover becomes new subtopic. Part–whole relation supports continuity.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
14. The report describes three causes. The first cause is cost.
Packaging: linear progression. Context question: new cause becomes topic. Information chain moves forward.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
15. Cost increased. This increase affected demand.
Packaging: nominal progression. Context question: event becomes noun phrase topic. Nominalisation maintains discourse link.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
16. The experiment failed because the sensor broke.
Packaging: cause in focus depending context. Context question: Why did it fail?. Causal clause can supply focal answer.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
17. Because the sensor broke, the experiment failed.
Packaging: fronted cause. Context question: cause framed early. Packaging shifts contextual setup.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
18. The experiment failed, however.
Packaging: contrast marker plus focus. Context question: counterexpectation. Discourse marker changes relation to prior sentence.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
19. Only Mira solved the puzzle.
Packaging: focus particle. Context question: Mira singled out. Alternatives are excluded.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
20. Mira only solved the puzzle.
Packaging: scope-sensitive only. Context question: meaning depends on focus placement. Could contrast solve with other actions.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
21. Even Mira solved the puzzle.
Packaging: scalar focus. Context question: Mira treated as unexpected solver. Even evokes ordered alternatives.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
22. Mira solved the puzzle too.
Packaging: additive focus. Context question: another solver presupposed/evoked. Too connects Mira to an existing alternative.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
23. As for the budget, we need more detail.
Packaging: topic frame. Context question: budget established. Phrase announces topic before comment.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
24. Regarding timing, the plan is workable.
Packaging: topic frame. Context question: timing established. Formal discourse marker creates topical frame.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
25. This method, however, has a limitation.
Packaging: topic continuity plus contrast. Context question: method remains topic. However marks relation to prior claim.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
26. The limitation is cost.
Packaging: focus value. Context question: cost supplies new value. Copular sentence identifies focal content.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
27. Cost is the limitation.
Packaging: inverted information packaging. Context question: cost foregrounded earlier. Useful when cost is already active.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
28. What matters is reliability.
Packaging: pseudocleft. Context question: reliability focal. Construction highlights criterion.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
29. Reliability is what matters.
Packaging: inverted pseudocleft. Context question: reliability topical/focal blend. Ordering changes discourse stance.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
30. It is reliability that matters.
Packaging: cleft. Context question: reliability contrastively focal. Other criteria are backgrounded or contrasted.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
31. The data show a decline.
Packaging: neutral academic statement. Context question: decline new. Known data lead to new finding.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
32. A decline is shown by the data.
Packaging: passive-like academic packaging. Context question: decline foregrounded. Less natural in many contexts unless decline is topic.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
33. The decline, the data clearly show.
Packaging: marked fronting. Context question: decline topicalised. Useful only in special rhetorical contexts.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
34. First, the data show a decline.
Packaging: discourse sequencing. Context question: first step foregrounded. Marker organises progression.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
35. The data, meanwhile, remain incomplete.
Packaging: topic + discourse relation. Context question: data maintained. Meanwhile marks simultaneous discourse track.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
36. Yesterday, Mira submitted the report.
Packaging: temporal frame. Context question: yesterday establishes scene. Time adverb frames proposition.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
37. Mira submitted the report yesterday.
Packaging: end focus on time possible. Context question: when?. Final adverb can answer temporal question.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
38. In the laboratory, the sample remained stable.
Packaging: locative frame. Context question: location sets domain. Place is background frame.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
39. The sample remained stable in the laboratory.
Packaging: location may be focal. Context question: where?. Same words allow different focus depending context.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
40. A new problem emerged.
Packaging: presentational new referent. Context question: problem enters discourse. Indefinite noun phrase signals newness.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
41. The problem worsened.
Packaging: given referent. Context question: problem now established. Definite form tracks same topic.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
42. This problem affects cost.
Packaging: demonstrative discourse link. Context question: problem highlighted. This creates local discourse salience.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
43. That problem affects cost.
Packaging: demonstrative distance. Context question: problem may be more distant or contrastive. That can signal discourse separation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
44. Mira solved it.
Packaging: pronoun reference. Context question: object highly accessible. No lexical repetition needed when reference is clear.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
45. Mira solved the puzzle.
Packaging: lexical noun. Context question: object named or reintroduced. Useful when pronoun would be ambiguous.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
46. The puzzle was difficult. Mira solved it.
Packaging: topic chain. Context question: puzzle remains accessible. Pronoun carries continuity across sentences.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
47. Mira was tired. She solved the puzzle anyway.
Packaging: topic + counterexpectation. Context question: Mira remains topic. Anyway marks unexpected continuation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
48. The task was hard. Still, she finished it.
Packaging: contrastive discourse focus. Context question: completion highlighted. Still signals counterexpectation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
49. The task was hard, but she finished it.
Packaging: coordination contrast. Context question: two propositions contrasted. But packages relation inside one sentence.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
50. Although the task was hard, she finished it.
Packaging: concessive frame. Context question: difficulty backgrounded. Main clause carries stronger assertion.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
51. She finished it although the task was hard.
Packaging: main event first. Context question: completion foregrounded. Concession follows as background.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
52. If the sensor fails, the test stops.
Packaging: conditional frame. Context question: condition before consequence. Condition establishes frame.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
53. The test stops if the sensor fails.
Packaging: consequence first. Context question: main claim foregrounded. Condition added after.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
54. To reduce noise, close the door.
Packaging: purpose frame. Context question: purpose introduced first. Action interpreted under stated goal.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
55. Close the door to reduce noise.
Packaging: action first. Context question: instruction foregrounded. Purpose follows.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
56. After the test, record the result.
Packaging: temporal frame. Context question: sequence context first. Reader knows when to act.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
57. Record the result after the test.
Packaging: action first. Context question: instruction focal. Timing follows.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
58. For this question, evidence matters most.
Packaging: domain frame. Context question: question sets local comparison class. Topic frame narrows relevance.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
59. Evidence matters most for this question.
Packaging: predicate focus possible. Context question: what matters?. End phrase supplies scope.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
60. In science, accuracy matters.
Packaging: discipline frame. Context question: science sets domain. Useful in cross-subject explanation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
61. Accuracy matters in science.
Packaging: accuracy foregrounded. Context question: topic may be accuracy. Order changes starting point.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
62. As for accuracy, the result is acceptable.
Packaging: explicit topic shift. Context question: accuracy becomes topic. Phrase marks discourse management.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
63. The result is acceptable, at least for accuracy.
Packaging: late qualifier. Context question: scope narrowed after claim. Information structure controls qualification.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
64. The old method was slow. The new method is faster.
Packaging: contrastive topic pair. Context question: old vs new. Parallel structure supports comparison.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
65. OLD methods were slow; NEW methods are faster.
Packaging: contrastive topic stress. Context question: method sets contrasted. Prosody identifies alternative set.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
66. Mira bought a RED notebook, not a blue one.
Packaging: corrective focus. Context question: colour corrected. Focus contrasts alternatives.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
67. Mira BOUGHT the notebook; she didn’t borrow it.
Packaging: corrective verb focus. Context question: action corrected. Lexical choice is focal.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
68. MIRA bought the notebook, not Jo.
Packaging: corrective subject focus. Context question: actor corrected. Identity rather than event is repaired.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
69. The notebook cost TEN dollars, not twelve.
Packaging: corrective quantity focus. Context question: number corrected. Focus falls on scalar value.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
70. She said she would COME, not call.
Packaging: contrastive predicate focus. Context question: event alternative. Infinitive receives focus.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
71. The answer is probably B.
Packaging: epistemic focus varies. Context question: uncertainty may frame proposition. Prosody determines emphasis.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
72. Probably, the answer is B.
Packaging: sentence-adverb frame. Context question: speaker stance introduced early. Stance becomes discourse frame.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
73. The answer, probably, is B.
Packaging: parenthetical stance. Context question: stance backgrounded. Punctuation and prosody alter prominence.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
74. What happened was that the file disappeared.
Packaging: event-focus pseudocleft. Context question: whole event focal. Construction answers broad question.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
75. It was after lunch that the file disappeared.
Packaging: adjunct cleft. Context question: time focal. Cleft isolates temporal information.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
76. It was in the lab that the file disappeared.
Packaging: adjunct cleft. Context question: location focal. Location contrasts alternatives.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
77. It was because the server failed that the file disappeared.
Packaging: cause cleft. Context question: cause focal. Reason isolated.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
78. The server failed. As a result, the file disappeared.
Packaging: linear discourse relation. Context question: failure given; effect new. Connector guides progression.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
79. The file disappeared because the server failed.
Packaging: effect first, cause second. Context question: main result foregrounded. Clause order packages explanation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
80. Because the server failed, the file disappeared.
Packaging: cause first. Context question: causal frame established. Listener processes reason before outcome.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
81. The file disappeared. The server, however, recovered.
Packaging: topic shift + contrast. Context question: server becomes new topic. However marks relation.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
82. The file disappeared. It was later recovered.
Packaging: same referent passive topic. Context question: file continuity. Passive preserves file as topic.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
83. The file disappeared. Engineers later recovered it.
Packaging: agent shift. Context question: engineers introduced. Active changes topic possibilities.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
84. Engineers later recovered the file.
Packaging: new agent + given object. Context question: who acted?. Subject introduction can shift discourse centre.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
85. The file, engineers later recovered.
Packaging: marked topicalisation. Context question: file remains topic. Less neutral but illustrates separation of topic and subject.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
86. What the engineers recovered was the file.
Packaging: pseudocleft. Context question: file focal. Useful when identity of recovered item is questioned.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
87. The engineers recovered THE FILE.
Packaging: prosodic object focus. Context question: object corrected/contrasted. Spoken focus can replace special syntax.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
88. THE ENGINEERS recovered the file.
Packaging: prosodic subject focus. Context question: actor focal. Words unchanged; information structure changes.
Analysis task: identify what is treated as already accessible, what is focal, and which alternative the sentence seems to answer or contrast. Then rewrite the sentence for a different question while preserving the basic event.
Prosody task: if the example is spoken English, move the strongest stress and explain how the focus changes. Writing may need a cleft, contrast phrase or reordering to make the same emphasis clear without audible stress.
Paragraph task: place the sentence after one line of prior context and before one line of new information. Strong information structure should make the transition easy to follow rather than leaving the reader to rebuild the topic chain.
50 Information-Structure Learning Labs
1. Find the topic
Find the topic begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
2. Find the focus
Find the focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
3. Given/new sorting
Given/new sorting begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
4. Question–answer matching
Question–answer matching begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
5. Broad-focus reading
Broad-focus reading begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
6. Narrow-focus reading
Narrow-focus reading begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
7. Contrastive stress
Contrastive stress begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
8. Corrective stress
Corrective stress begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
9. Pronoun accessibility
Pronoun accessibility begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
10. Definite/indefinite contrast
Definite/indefinite contrast begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
11. Active/passive packaging
Active/passive packaging begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
12. It-cleft construction
It-cleft construction begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
13. Pseudocleft construction
Pseudocleft construction begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
14. Topicalisation
Topicalisation begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
15. Existential there
Existential there begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
16. Presentational there
Presentational there begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
17. End-weight revision
End-weight revision begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
18. Old-before-new revision
Old-before-new revision begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
19. Topic continuity chain
Topic continuity chain begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
20. Topic-shift marker
Topic-shift marker begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
21. Linear theme progression
Linear theme progression begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
22. Constant theme progression
Constant theme progression begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
23. Split progression
Split progression begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
24. Only scope
Only scope begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
25. Even focus
Even focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
26. Too/additive focus
Too/additive focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
27. Negation and focus
Negation and focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
28. Quantifier focus
Quantifier focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
29. Prosody annotation
Prosody annotation begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
30. Written emphasis rewrite
Written emphasis rewrite begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
31. Academic paragraph flow
Academic paragraph flow begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
32. Science result paragraph
Science result paragraph begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
33. Narrative attention shift
Narrative attention shift begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
34. Dialogue focus shift
Dialogue focus shift begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
35. Instruction sequencing
Instruction sequencing begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
36. Explanation sequencing
Explanation sequencing begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
37. Argument contrast
Argument contrast begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
38. Summary focus
Summary focus begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
39. Paraphrase emphasis
Paraphrase emphasis begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
40. Translation focus preservation
Translation focus preservation begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
41. Cross-language topic comparison
Cross-language topic comparison begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
42. Listening focus task
Listening focus task begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
43. Speaking focus task
Speaking focus task begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
44. Reading focus task
Reading focus task begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
45. Writing focus task
Writing focus task begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
46. Corpus cleft search
Corpus cleft search begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
47. Corpus passive search
Corpus passive search begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
48. Register comparison
Register comparison begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
49. Genre comparison
Genre comparison begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
50. Final discourse packaging
Final discourse packaging begins with a short discourse of at least two sentences. Learners identify what is already active in the conversation and which element carries the new or contrastive information. A sentence without context should not be forced into one unique topic-focus analysis when several are possible.
Next change the question being answered or the preceding sentence. Ask whether stress, pronoun choice, active/passive voice or word order should change. The point is to show that information structure is relational: the same proposition can be packaged differently because the discourse changes.
Finish with production. Give one piece of given information and one new claim, then ask the learner to build a natural sentence and paragraph transition. Strong control means the reader can recover the topic, new information and intended emphasis without unnecessary rereading.
Information Structure FAQ
What is information structure?
The organisation of linguistic information according to what is given, new, topical, focal or contrastive in context.
What is topic?
The entity or issue a clause is organised around.
What is focus?
The information selected as especially informative, new or contrastive relative to contextual alternatives.
What is given information?
Material treated as already accessible from prior discourse, shared context or common ground.
What is new information?
Material introduced as not yet established in the discourse.
What is theme and rheme?
A related tradition describing the starting point of a message and what is developed from it.
What is broad focus?
Focus covering an entire clause or large constituent, often answering What happened?
What is narrow focus?
Focus restricted to one constituent, often answering Who? What? Where? or another specific question.
What is contrastive focus?
Focus that selects one alternative against competing alternatives.
What is corrective focus?
Focus used to replace or repair a prior assumption.
How does English mark focus?
Through prosodic stress, clefts, word order, focus particles and discourse context.
What is deaccenting?
Reducing prosodic prominence on given or predictable material.
How does passive voice affect information structure?
It can keep an affected participant as subject/topic and background or omit the Agent.
Why use cleft sentences?
Clefts isolate a constituent for contrast, identification or emphasis.
What is an it-cleft?
A construction such as It was Mira who solved it, focusing Mira.
What is a pseudocleft?
A construction such as What Mira solved was the puzzle, identifying a focused value.
What is existential there?
A construction such as There is a problem that introduces a referent into discourse.
What is end focus?
A tendency for important new information to appear toward the end of the clause.
What is end weight?
A tendency to place longer or more complex constituents later.
Why place old information before new?
It can connect the sentence to established context before adding new material.
How do pronouns relate to information structure?
Pronouns usually refer to highly accessible or given discourse entities.
How do discourse markers relate to information structure?
Markers can signal topic changes, continuation, contrast and discourse organisation.
How does information structure help writing?
It improves cohesion, paragraph flow, emphasis and reader processing.
How does it help speaking?
Speakers use stress and intonation to show what matters most.
How does it help listening?
Listeners use prosody to identify focus and distinguish background from new information.
How does it affect translation?
Target languages may mark topic and focus with different syntax, particles or prosody.
Is topic the same as grammatical subject?
No. Subjects often serve as topics, but topic and subject are distinct notions.
Is focus always new information?
Not necessarily. Focus can be contrastive or corrective even when the referent is already known.
Can a sentence have more than one possible focus?
Yes. Context and prosody can support different focus interpretations.
Where should I continue?
Use the Mastery Club Vocabulary apex, Construction Grammar, Lexical Pragmatics, Discourse Markers, Semantic Roles and Lexical Cohesion.
Evidence Note
Cambridge’s classic treatment of information structure describes it as the relationship between sentence form and a speaker’s assumptions about the hearer’s state of knowledge and consciousness. Topic, focus, presupposition and assertion are analysed as pragmatic categories that interact with morphosyntax and prosody. Modern work continues to debate terminology and theoretical boundaries, so this article uses topic, focus and given/new as practical descriptive tools rather than claiming one universally accepted formal model.
Further reading: Cambridge: Information Structure and Sentence Form — Introduction; Cambridge: Pragmatic Relations — Focus.
The Mastery Club: Continue the Vocabulary Tree
Return to Vocabulary | Primary 1 to Adult & Career Vocabulary. Continue to Construction Grammar, Lexical Pragmatics, Semantic Roles and Lexical Cohesion.
The governing rule: do not ask only what the sentence means. Ask how the sentence packages that meaning for this listener, at this point in the discourse.
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