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How People Translate Quickly | EPUB 3.3 Navigation Translation QA: Localize Contents and Landmarks Without Losing the Book

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eduKate Asia

How People Translate Quickly | EPUB 3.3 Navigation Translation QA: Localize Contents and Landmarks Without Losing the Book

To translate EPUB 3.3 navigation quickly, localize the visible table-of-contents labels, page-list headings and landmark labels while preserving the navigation document’s XHTML structure, epub:type semantics and every href destination. Keep the hierarchy aligned with the actual reading order and test each link in a reading system after packaging. A good translation helps a reader find the same chapter, glossary, page or beginning of the main text; it does not create new destinations, silently reorder a book or rename the structural terms that EPUB software understands.

This guide focuses on an EPUB Navigation Document, particularly its required table of contents and its optional page-list and landmarks. That is a different task from translating chapter prose, EPUB media overlays, or an ordinary website menu. A textbook may have a clear Chinese chapter title but an outdated English contents link, a missing front-matter landmark, or a print page reference that points to the wrong location. Those mistakes harm access even when every paragraph of the translated chapter is excellent.

EPUB 3.3 is specified by the World Wide Web Consortium; the W3C Recommendation is dated 13 January 2026, with the maintained EPUB 3.3 documentation updated in October 2026. The specification defines the EPUB Navigation Document and the required toc navigation, plus optional page-list and landmarks navigation. Navigation is part of a packaged publication with a manifest and reading order. The code examples in this article are illustrative XHTML fragments; a production EPUB must also satisfy package, content, accessibility and reading-system requirements.

The reader’s task is finding a place, not reading a sentence

A multilingual ebook can fail in a way that is easy to overlook. A student opens the translated science textbook, sees a table of contents, selects “Photosynthesis,” and arrives at an unrelated experiment. The translation itself may be impeccable. The fault is that the link retained an old fragment identifier or the label was moved to the wrong location in the list. Navigation is therefore a promise about destinations, not merely a collection of translated headings.

Write a success condition for each entry: the visible label explains what a destination contains, and the link takes the reader there in the expected sequence. A reader using a screen reader must be able to locate the same material. The label may need a natural-language adjustment, especially if a chapter title is abbreviated in a small menu, but the underlying target must remain correct. Reviewers should test the label-destination pair together, not approve text in a spreadsheet alone.

The workflow begins with an inventory of the EPUB’s actual documents and target IDs. Record each navigation entry’s source label, type, list depth, href, destination heading and translated chapter heading. Include optional navigation aids if the book uses them. Ask which destinations are fundamental for the reader: beginning of body text, table of contents, glossary, list of illustrations or matching print pages. This inventory establishes evidence before localization starts.

Understand the EPUB Navigation Document

The EPUB Navigation Document is an XHTML content document identified in the package as the navigation resource. It can appear in the spine and be displayed like a chapter, but it also provides structured navigation to reading systems. Its nav elements have prescribed structural semantics. EPUB does not simply search for any unordered collection of links and treat it as a reliable table of contents; the required navigation is marked by epub:type.

The toc navigation is required exactly once. Optional navigations include a page-list for print-equivalent page boundaries and landmarks for major structural destinations. Additional navigation aids can exist under the rules of the specification. A translator who duplicates the required toc because a second language needs its own menu may produce a nonconforming or confusing navigation document. Language variants need a planned publishing strategy, not an extra copy of every structural element.

Consider the roles of the different navigation aids. The table of contents describes the publication’s primary hierarchy. A page list supports users who need correspondence with a print edition. Landmarks give quick access to fundamental parts such as the beginning of body matter. Translating a list’s heading may be useful, but changing the meaning of a nav type or inserting arbitrary link destinations can defeat that role. Preserve semantic purpose and check that the book’s actual structure still supports it.

A small, checkable XHTML navigation example

The following is an invented educational example. It assumes the referenced XHTML content files exist and contain the named fragment IDs. The example keeps EPUB structural tokens in their standardized spelling, while human-facing labels may be localized. The XHTML namespaces and epub:type syntax matter; simply copying the visible contents into a different XML shape is not sufficient.

<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
      xmlns:epub="http://www.idpf.org/2007/ops"
      xml:lang="en" lang="en">
  <head><title>Navigation</title></head>
  <body>
    <nav epub:type="toc" id="toc">
      <h1>Contents</h1>
      <ol><li><a href="chapter1.xhtml#opening">Observing rain</a></li>
          <li><a href="chapter2.xhtml#analysis">Interpreting data</a></li></ol>
    </nav>
    <nav epub:type="landmarks">
      <h2>Guide</h2>
      <ol><li><a epub:type="bodymatter" href="chapter1.xhtml#opening">Start reading</a></li></ol>
    </nav>
  </body>
</html>

The target-language editor may translate “Contents,” “Observing rain,” “Interpreting data,” “Guide” and “Start reading.” They should not translate toc, landmarks, bodymatter, href, id or the file references as incidental text. If a localized edition genuinely has different content filenames or fragment IDs, those are package changes requiring coordinated verification. The example is a minimal fragment and does not by itself supply the EPUB package manifest or all required accessibility checks.

Validate this XHTML for well-formed XML and compare each anchor target against the files in the assembled EPUB. Then inspect the rendered menu in at least one reading system. A browser showing the XHTML fragment correctly does not establish full EPUB conformance. Reading systems may expose the navigation tree separately from the page, and accessibility behavior can differ. A final review should test that tree, the page display and the packaged file references.

Preserve epub:type tokens as structural vocabulary

The epub:type attribute marks semantic roles such as toc, page-list and landmarks; the structural vocabulary also includes values used on individual landmark links, such as bodymatter. These tokens are not language-specific descriptions. Translating bodymatter into a local word may make it look friendlier to a human viewing the source, but it prevents software from recognizing the intended structural type.

Create a translator extraction that separates element text nodes from attributes. Hide or lock the structural attributes in the localization interface while providing their explanations as context. A reviewer can still see that a link leads to body matter, but cannot accidentally change the token into translated prose. This is a small process investment that prevents an entire class of otherwise plausible-looking failures. Do the same for IDs and the namespace declaration.

A structural diff should confirm that the number and types of navigation aids remain appropriate. If the source has one toc and one optional landmarks list, a language update should not invent another toc or remove the existing landmarks. When the book structure changes intentionally, treat it as an editorial/package release rather than as an incidental translation. Document exactly which link and section changed and why.

Keep href targets stable across language views

An href in the navigation document points to a content document or a fragment within it. Relative references must resolve from the correct location. This is a machine relationship, even if the filename contains familiar English words. A translator should not replace chapter2.xhtml#analysis with a natural-language phrase or add spaces because the target chapter title has spaces. The display label is the correct place for human translation.

If the localized ebook is built as a separate package with localized filenames, links may legitimately differ. That requires a build manifest and exact target verification, not intuition. A common failure is changing a chapter filename but leaving one navigation link pointing to the previous version. Another is translating an id in a chapter header without updating links. Both may be invisible during a quick visual check of the contents page.

Run a link-resolution test using the assembled package, not only individual source files. For every href, normalize its path relative to the navigation document, check that the file exists and verify that any fragment ID appears in the target document. Pay attention to case sensitivity and percent encoding. Then click links in a real reader, because a validator can tell whether a fragment exists but not whether the linked section is what the translated label promises.

Maintain chapter hierarchy rather than flattening it

A table of contents can be nested: a chapter may contain subtopics, exercises and further reading. List structure communicates a hierarchy that screen readers and ebook interfaces may expose through navigation controls. Flattening the list to simplify translation can remove meaningful relationships even if each individual link survives. A student may no longer know which exercise belongs to which chapter or where a subsection ends.

A language with longer titles may challenge a compact menu. Resist the temptation to delete levels or combine sections simply to avoid wrapping. Instead, consider shorter approved labels, flexible layout and appropriate typography. The best title balances clarity and concision without losing a concept. An editor can use a shorter navigation label than a full chapter heading when the relationship remains unambiguous, but should review whether the shortened label still distinguishes neighboring entries.

Test hierarchy using a structural tree, not just screenshots. Compare ordered and nested list nodes before and after translation. Ask a learner to locate a specific subtopic without scrolling through the entire book. If they cannot tell which chapter contains it, the navigation fails its educational job. This is particularly important in long exam-preparation books where students revisit a narrow skill rather than read linearly from the front cover.

Align table-of-contents order with the spine

The package spine determines the publication’s default reading order, while the table of contents should reflect the logical reading sequence of the major sections. A translator may be tempted to sort translated titles alphabetically or group related topics by vocabulary. That could change the book’s pedagogical progression and make the contents diverge from reading order. Translation does not authorize restructuring the curriculum.

Suppose a science book progresses from observation to measurement to interpretation. Alphabetically sorting target-language headings might place interpretation first and imply that it should be studied before evidence collection. Even if every link works, the book teaches a different sequence. Keep navigation order tied to the intended content hierarchy. If the editor decides to reorganize lessons, update the entire publication consistently and record the change as a new editorial release.

Check order in three places: the navigation list, the actual content sequence and the package spine. The relationship is not always one-to-one for front matter or reference material, so a human review should explain deliberate differences. Automated comparisons are a starting point, not a replacement for publishing judgment. A source-to-target mapping with stable section IDs makes it easier to spot inadvertent movement without insisting that every edition has identical pagination.

Treat landmarks as quick routes, not a second contents list

The optional landmarks navigation is intended to identify fundamental structural destinations that a reading system can expose through dedicated controls. It is not supposed to repeat every chapter entry from the table of contents. Common useful landmarks include the beginning of body matter and, when the contents is also in the spine, an accessible point for the table of contents. Translating the visible labels should preserve each destination’s structural purpose.

If the source links to the first chapter as bodymatter, the translated label can say “Begin the lessons” rather than “Start reading,” provided the destination truly starts the main text. A bad translation would call that link “Book cover,” which sends readers to an unexpected place even though the URL remains stable. Another failure is copying the first chapter’s bodymatter semantics onto an index link simply because the localization tool reuses a template.

Review landmarks with an accessibility specialist or user who navigates by structure. Ask them to move directly to the main text, glossary or table of contents using the reader’s available navigation controls. Confirm the links exist in the packaged edition and that duplicate landmark entries do not introduce redundant or misleading targets. The W3C specification places specific constraints on landmark navigation, so a custom “helpful” copy must still respect its documented structure.

Keep the page list tied to the correct edition

An optional page-list can help readers find the same location as a printed book, a requirement that matters in classrooms where a teacher references a printed page number. Translating the page-list heading is ordinary localization. Altering the page labels or targets without evidence can make print-to-digital citations fail. A translated ebook may reflow visually, but a page-list entry is not simply the current device screen number.

If a teacher says “Look at page 42,” a student using a screen reader needs the EPUB page-list reference to reach the content corresponding to print page 42. A translator who renumbers page links according to the target PDF’s new page layout has changed the reference system. Decide whether the edition claims equivalence to a source print edition, a new target-language print edition, or no print pagination at all. That decision belongs to the publisher’s edition plan.

Test page-list targets against the designated print source. Confirm that the list is not duplicated and that page markers or link targets are present where expected. If the target-language edition has genuinely different pagination, do not silently claim correspondence with the original. Document the basis for the page list and ensure citations in teacher guides point to the same reference edition. Precision matters more than a cosmetically complete list.

Use xml:lang and language context deliberately

Language information helps processors, assistive technologies and readers interpret text. An EPUB navigation document may use language attributes on its root and on particular spans. A target-language edition should declare its actual language using appropriate BCP 47 language tags and valid XHTML conventions. A reader should not hear every target-language title pronounced as English merely because the root still says en.

Language tags are technical identifiers, not labels to translate. Avoid replacing a language tag with a spelled-out language name in an attribute. Check regional distinctions only where they matter to pronunciation or content, and do not assume a script merely from a country name. Mixed-language navigation may need explicit language spans, such as a scientific Latin term retained within a Chinese title. The localization review should examine language at the right element level.

Test navigation with text-to-speech and screen readers where possible. Inspect how titles are pronounced, how a language change is announced and whether punctuation causes awkward pauses. If the publisher supports both language-specific editions and a multilingual edition, treat their metadata and navigation strategies separately. A document that is mostly Chinese but still declared English is a measurable accessibility defect, not merely a cosmetic metadata detail.

Handle right-to-left and mixed-direction titles

Arabic and Hebrew navigation labels may combine right-to-left prose with left-to-right page numbers, Latin abbreviations or file-like identifiers. Visual order can become confusing when directionality is inherited inappropriately. Do not change the link target to fix a visual display problem. Use appropriate HTML language and direction mechanisms, and test the result in both the contents document and the reader’s built-in navigation panel.

A label may look correct in a desktop browser and reverse punctuation in an ebook app that renders navigation through its own widget. Create examples with a numeral at the end, a technical acronym in the middle and a quoted chapter title. Confirm that the text reads in the correct sequence to a native-language reviewer. Use Unicode isolation or HTML direction handling as appropriate to the actual renderer, not indiscriminate insertion of invisible control characters.

The structural list and destination still need their own checks. A translated title that wraps across lines should not change nesting or create a tap target that covers another entry. Test narrow mobile screens, large font settings and assistive navigation. If the reading system has known limitations, record them and decide whether a safe workaround is possible without falsifying book structure. Such defects belong to display compatibility, not to the semantics of epub:type.

Preserve mathematical and scientific notation inside labels

Educational EPUBs often contain navigation titles with formulas, units, chemical names or mathematical symbols. These are not always safely translatable as ordinary words. A chapter heading “Speed in m/s” includes a unit that must retain its scientific meaning. Translating the accompanying noun is appropriate; replacing the unit with an unrelated localized abbreviation is not. A label should remain recognizable to the learner who follows the link into the chapter.

If the contents includes “Pythagoras’ theorem,” a target-language editor may use a well-established local convention for the theorem name, but should not change the mathematical topic. If the label is shortened for space, confirm that it still distinguishes the section from another theorem or example. Mathematics may also appear through MathML in content rather than navigation text. Ensure text alternatives remain understandable without treating formulas as decorative punctuation.

Build a term list for recurring subject labels and review it against the chapters. This is not keyword stuffing; it is consistency work for a textbook whose reader repeatedly uses the contents to locate learning objectives. Test search and navigation together. If a learner searches for the target-language term in a chapter, the contents should lead to that section rather than a different topic with a superficially similar label.

Don’t translate package identifiers or spine references

The EPUB package document identifies resources and their reading sequence. An idref or manifest item ID is a technical link, not a classroom word. Changing such identifiers during language editing may cause the navigation document to disappear from the package or change which files are presented to readers. The language team should not edit these values unless a controlled publishing pipeline requires a synchronized package update.

A localized edition often legitimately changes the text of chapter files. Whether it also changes filenames or resource identifiers depends on the publisher’s build process. If filenames change, the package manifest, spine and navigation links must be updated together. A string-by-string translation in an XML editor is the wrong level of abstraction for this. Use a build script or publication system that can rebuild and validate all references consistently.

Audit the package after translation as a complete archive. Check that there is a navigation item identified by the proper manifest property, that content files referenced by the spine exist, and that navigation anchors resolve. Tools such as EPUBCheck can help detect structural problems. However, successful packaging does not prove a chapter title is accurately translated or that the linked chapter corresponds to the label; human educational review is still necessary.

Check the difference between navigational labels and chapter headings

A navigation entry may reuse a chapter heading, but it need not be a byte-for-byte duplicate. A chapter’s full title might be long, while a table-of-contents entry is a concise navigational label. The two should communicate the same destination. A translator should therefore review the pair rather than blindly copying the heading or inventing a new short label without checking its meaning.

Suppose a section is titled “Why a graph with a truncated vertical axis can mislead readers.” A shorter contents label like “Truncated axes” may be useful if there is no neighboring section with the same topic. A vague label such as “Graphs” could send students to the wrong skill. Confirm distinctiveness among siblings in the list. The target label should help a student predict what will happen after selecting it.

Design a mapping worksheet with full source heading, full translated heading, short navigation label, target identifier and sibling context. This gives reviewers enough information to approve abbreviations intelligently. If titles change during copyediting, update the navigation mapping and rerun link and semantic checks. A surprisingly common error is approving labels early, then forgetting that later chapter edits changed their meaning.

Account for images and inaccessible heading graphics

Some older textbooks display chapter titles as images. An EPUB navigation label should still be useful as text, and the chapter should expose accessible heading information. Translating the navigation alone does not make a rasterized chapter title accessible. A student might find the right location and then encounter an unlabeled image where the heading should be. Translation and accessibility must be coordinated across the destination content.

Check whether images of text are necessary, whether text alternatives accurately reflect their content, and whether a screen reader can locate the corresponding heading. If a translated chapter replaces an English image with a new image, confirm the text alternative was updated too. Do not leave alt text in English while presenting a target-language navigation label; nor should a generic “image” alt label substitute for a meaningful chapter title.

The repair may involve using semantic HTML headings instead of text baked into images, or supplying accurate text alternatives where appropriate. This is a content-authoring task, not a change to href. Keep the technical destination stable and use the accessible heading to verify that the link truly arrives at the intended topic. Test in real assistive reading workflows rather than relying only on visual design review.

Watch for localized words that alter editorial promises

Some headings are task instructions: “Practise before the exam,” “Check your answers,” or “Safety precautions.” Their translation can imply a different level of authority or a different activity. A label changed from “Optional practice” to “Required assessment” changes what the student expects and may cause stress or confusion. This is not just a stylistic problem; navigation labels act as promises about the nature of linked content.

Review action words, negations and modality. “May,” “must,” “optional,” “example” and “answer key” need careful treatment. A translated label saying “solutions” when the destination contains only hints will frustrate learners. A navigation tree should make the publication’s organization transparent and should not overstate the completeness or authority of its educational content.

Run a task-based exercise. Ask a learner to find independent practice, worked examples and the glossary using only the translated navigation. Observe their first clicks and whether the destination matches expectation. Repair misleading labels without changing section links or curriculum order. This test is especially valuable for readers who cannot scan the page visually and rely on a concise navigation tree.

Validate the document as XHTML, not arbitrary HTML

An EPUB Navigation Document uses XHTML markup under the EPUB rules. XML well-formedness is therefore a basic threshold. An unescaped ampersand inside a translated title can break parsing, and an accidentally missing closing tag can damage the navigation tree. A browser may silently repair malformed HTML, while an EPUB reading system or validator may reject the document or interpret it differently.

Encode text correctly, escape special XML characters, and preserve namespaces. Check that every anchor has a valid destination and that heading and list structures conform to the relevant EPUB rules. A translation editor should not be allowed to paste raw untrusted HTML into a navigation label. Text content and structural markup need separate editing permissions or a safe serialization step.

Automated validation should be followed by a rendered test. XML well-formedness confirms syntax, not actual language, chapter relevance or accessible behavior. EPUBCheck and other validators can report errors in assembled packages, but a reader may still find a misleading contents hierarchy. Keep distinct checks for syntax, EPUB structure, link resolution, text accuracy and real navigation in the user interface.

Diagnose navigation bugs by symptom and evidence

If a link opens the wrong chapter, compare href and target ID with the approved mapping. If the link opens nowhere, check file presence, path case, fragment spelling and packaging. If a table of contents is missing from the reading system’s navigation panel, inspect the package manifest and the required toc structure. If assistive speech pronounces every target title incorrectly, inspect language declarations and the reading system’s support.

Make a minimal test package from non-sensitive example chapters when debugging. This avoids the noise of images, fonts and large exercise sets. Reproduce the error with one toc, a small landmarks list and a few files. If the minimal package passes, add original features back step by step until the failure reappears. Record the EPUBCheck version, reader software and device because different implementations may expose different defects.

After repair, rerun all checks rather than just the failing link. Renaming one chapter file can affect the spine, navigation, internal chapter links and reference notes. A new language attribute can change speech behavior in places the editor did not expect. The acceptance report should list the exact destinations tested, supported reading systems and any known limitations. This makes later revisions safer and prevents repeating the same bug in the next translated edition.

Changed-context transfer exercise: a mathematics workbook becomes a bilingual history reader

A publisher has a mathematics workbook with one main table of contents, a page list matching a printed edition and a bodymatter landmark. In a new bilingual history edition, an editor translates each contents label but alphabetizes the entries by target-language title, changes one href to a translated filename that does not exist, and renumbers the page list to match the ebook app’s current screen count. What failures will readers experience, and what should the editor change?

The alphabetical sort breaks the intended reading progression. The guessed filename produces a broken destination. The renumbered page list no longer supports correspondence with the designated print edition, and may mislead a teacher who cites a specific page. Restore navigation order from the publication structure, correct every target against actual packaged files, and define which print edition the page list represents. Keep the structural epub:type values fixed. Translate labels freely enough to be natural, but not at the expense of destination truth.

The method transfers because the invariant is the reader’s route to content, not the subject area. Mathematics navigation may feature symbols and formulas; history navigation may feature periods, place names and archive references. Each needs different terminology review, yet both require link resolution, semantic types, hierarchy, language declarations and assistive navigation testing. A successful revision helps a learner find the right evidence regardless of language or medium.

The complete navigation release checklist

First verify ownership and scope: which EPUB edition, source language, target language, print pagination and actual content files are being published? Inventory every table-of-contents, page-list and landmark entry. Record links, target headings, hierarchy, language declarations and expected user tasks. Protect structural attribute values and package references from unrestricted editing. Review the editorial distinction between a full chapter title and a concise navigation label.

Next verify meaning and structure. A bilingual reviewer should confirm that labels make accurate promises, preserve modality and distinguish neighboring destinations. Confirm the required toc occurs exactly once and the optional navigation aids follow the specification. Check that all href paths and fragment IDs resolve, that table-of-contents order reflects the intended reading structure, and that page-list references correspond to the publisher’s designated print source when one is claimed.

Finally validate the assembled EPUB and test it in real reading systems. Run XML and EPUB structure checks, inspect the navigation panel, visit selected nested links, follow landmarks, test page-list access and review screen-reader pronunciation. Include a narrow mobile display and enlarged text. Block release if the edition cannot reliably direct readers to its advertised content, even when the translated sentences are beautiful. Navigation quality is measured by successful journeys through the book.

Test navigation against genuine learner tasks

A validation report can say that every anchor exists while the contents is still difficult to use. A chapter may have a technically correct destination but an unhelpful label, or a glossary entry may be hidden beneath the wrong parent. Design task tests that reflect how readers actually use the publication. Ask one learner to open a practice question from a named chapter, another to find the glossary definition of a term, and a screen-reader user to jump past introductory material into the main body. Record the sequence of navigation actions, not merely whether they eventually arrive.

For an educational book, the intended task often begins with a teacher’s instruction: “Review the exercise on rounding decimals.” A useful contents label and nested hierarchy should take the student toward that exercise without searching every page. If the target-language translation uses a regional synonym unfamiliar to the students, the link can be technically perfect yet practically hard to find. Compare the navigational vocabulary with the actual chapter headings and with the school curriculum’s established terminology. Repair the misleading label through editorial review; do not move the link to a different exercise simply to make the label appear right.

Repeat tasks after a major contents revision, a change in reading order or an edition update. Include students who read on small phones and those who rely on assistive technology. A reader’s success provides evidence about discoverability, but not about XML conformance; keep both measures. Record failures with the source and translated labels, expected and actual targets, and the device used. This evidence helps editors decide whether they need a clearer synonym, a structural fix or better content headings. Navigation is an interface to learning, so it deserves user testing as well as document validation.

Limits of navigation-only translation

Perfect navigation does not guarantee that the chapter bodies are correct, that every image has good alt text or that complex mathematics is accessible. Those tasks need their own editorial and technical checks. Likewise, EPUBCheck can identify many packaging issues without judging whether the translated label is accurate or appropriate to a particular school syllabus. Keep the navigation audit within its scope while coordinating with the broader publication review.

Reading systems differ in support for optional navigation features and in how they display or speak navigation labels. A structurally sound EPUB may still show limitations in one device’s built-in panel. Record the readers tested and distinguish a publisher defect from a known renderer issue. Avoid relying on undocumented behavior that works in only one application if the book is intended for broad distribution.

Translated editions may legitimately differ in chapter content, print equivalence or pedagogical order. When they do, the publisher must intentionally rebuild the navigation map and package. The rule is not that every link byte must match the original forever; it is that changes to references and structure must be authorized, consistent and verifiable. A text-only translator should not unknowingly make those structural decisions.

Summary: make every translated label lead somewhere true

An EPUB 3.3 navigation translation succeeds when readers can use natural target-language labels to reach the same intended content safely and accessibly. Protect the required toc structure, preserve recognized epub:type tokens, verify href destinations and hierarchy, and handle page lists and landmarks according to their real purpose. Test language and directionality, then validate the packaged EPUB in actual reading systems. The best contents page is not just fluent: it is an accurate map of the book.

Frequently asked questions

Must an EPUB 3.3 publication have a table of contents?

It must include the required toc navigation in its EPUB Navigation Document. The specification defines that structure and imposes constraints on its occurrence. This is different from choosing whether to show a visual contents page as part of ordinary reading.

Do I have to translate the value toc inside epub:type?

No. It is a standardized structural token, not a human-facing label. Translate the displayed heading or link text while retaining semantic vocabulary values such as toc, page-list, landmarks and bodymatter as required.

Can a target-language edition use different chapter filenames?

Yes, if that is a planned publishing decision and every package reference is rebuilt consistently. A translator should not change filenames or fragment IDs in isolation. Validate all links and manifest/spine relationships after any intentional rename.

Is a page list the same as the ebook’s on-screen page count?

No. A page list can express correspondence to a print or statically paginated source. Device screens vary with font size and viewport. The publisher should declare which reference pagination it supports and test the corresponding targets.

Should the translated contents follow alphabetical order?

Usually not simply because the titles are now in another language. Table-of-contents hierarchy and order should reflect the intended structure and reading sequence. Sorting titles can disrupt learning progression and create a misleading map of the publication.

How do I help a screen reader pronounce target-language titles?

Use correct language declarations, valid markup and meaningful accessible text. Test with the specific reading systems and assistive technologies used by the audience. Language tags are technical identifiers, not natural-language sentences to translate.

Can landmarks replace the table of contents?

No. The toc has its own required role. The optional landmarks navigation provides quick access to fundamental parts of the book. It should not be treated as an unlimited duplicate contents list.

Why is XML validation not sufficient?

A well-formed file may contain a broken link, misleading translated title or incorrect book hierarchy. Add target resolution, EPUB package validation, human label review and real-reader interaction tests. Each identifies a different defect.

What if a translated label is much longer than the source?

Prefer flexible display and a carefully reviewed concise label rather than deleting structural hierarchy. Ensure that any shorter wording still distinguishes its destination from nearby entries. Test wrapping, large text and narrow screens.

Does this guide cover translating timed narration overlays?

No. EPUB media overlays are a separate timed-text/audio synchronization task. This guide concerns the navigation document’s links, labels, hierarchy and landmarks. A publication using both should validate them independently and together.