Why English? | Using SAGER to Report Sex and Gender Through Study Design, Data, Analysis, Results and Interpretation

ORIENTATION

What this guide owns

Current fact check

SAGER was published in 2016 after work by a panel of 13 experts from nine countries. It applies to human and animal research, material derived from humans and animals, and relevant applied sciences, with recommendations across the main sections of a research report.

Canonical boundary

This article owns sex-and-gender transparency using SAGER. The CONSORT-Equity article owns social-disadvantage questions in randomised trials, while discipline-specific ethics and statistical guidance retain separate roles.

Worked example

Every chapter returns to a fictional study of a new classroom air-quality alert app and whether notification use, response time and comfort differ across student groups. It is fictional, low-stakes and educational; it does not report a real school, clinical decision or guaranteed outcome.

Warm up with eduKate’s guides to explaining scientific evidence and asking better questions in class.

CHAPTER 1 OF 16

1. Distinguish Sex and Gender in the Research Question

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Why this move matters

Use sex for biological attributes when that is what is measured and gender for roles, identities, relations or social processes when relevant; state both when both matter.

Define the variable before analysing it

Use sex for biological attributes when that is what is measured and gender for roles, identities, relations or social processes when relevant; state both when both matter. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The app study distinguishes recorded sex-related physiology from self-described gender and social experience. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Definitions vary across disciplines and should not erase intersex, transgender or nonbinary people. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Distinguish Sex and Gender in the Research Question”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 2 OF 16

2. State How Each Variable Was Determined

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Why this move matters

Report self-report, records, examination, genetic testing, inference or another method, including categories, missing options and who supplied the information.

Define the variable before analysing it

Report self-report, records, examination, genetic testing, inference or another method, including categories, missing options and who supplied the information. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: Gender is self-described using participant-chosen categories; no value is inferred from name. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

A variable label is not a measurement method. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “State How Each Variable Was Determined”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 3 OF 16

3. Make Single-Sex or Single-Gender Scope Visible in the Title and Abstract

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Why this move matters

When only one group is studied, say so in the title and abstract, including animals, cells, tissues and applied models where relevant.

Define the variable before analysing it

When only one group is studied, say so in the title and abstract, including animals, cells, tissues and applied models where relevant. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: A one-sex laboratory study names that fact instead of implying universal coverage. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Visibility does not by itself justify exclusion. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Make Single-Sex or Single-Gender Scope Visible in the Title and Abstract”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 4 OF 16

4. Explain Prior Evidence and Expected Similarities or Differences

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Why this move matters

Review relevant evidence and state whether sex or gender may modify exposure, uptake, mechanism or outcome.

Define the variable before analysing it

Review relevant evidence and state whether sex or gender may modify exposure, uptake, mechanism or outcome. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The introduction considers device fit, notification norms and physiological responses without assuming a difference. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Plausibility is a reason to study a question, not evidence that a difference exists. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Explain Prior Evidence and Expected Similarities or Differences”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 5 OF 16

5. Design Representation Around the Question

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Why this move matters

Explain inclusion, exclusion, recruitment and whether representation supports the planned comparisons.

Define the variable before analysing it

Explain inclusion, exclusion, recruitment and whether representation supports the planned comparisons. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: Sampling seeks enough participation across relevant groups while protecting privacy. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Numerical balance alone cannot solve selection or small subgroup size. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Design Representation Around the Question”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 6 OF 16

6. Justify Exclusions and One-Group Studies

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Why this move matters

Give scientific, ethical or practical reasons and state how the restriction affects transfer.

Define the variable before analysing it

Give scientific, ethical or practical reasons and state how the restriction affects transfer. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: A pilot limited to one group explains its rationale and avoids general claims. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Convenience is not automatically a sufficient justification. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Justify Exclusions and One-Group Studies”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 7 OF 16

7. Report Sex of Animals, Cells, Tissues and Source Donors

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Why this move matters

State species and sex of animals and the sex or chromosome information of primary cells, tissues and donors when known; explain unknown or mixed origins.

Define the variable before analysing it

State species and sex of animals and the sex or chromosome information of primary cells, tissues and donors when known; explain unknown or mixed origins. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: Cell-source documentation includes donor sex and whether cultures were pooled. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Cell lines can change over time, and recorded origin may not describe every present characteristic. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Report Sex of Animals, Cells, Tissues and Source Donors”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 8 OF 16

8. Plan Analysis Before Seeing Results

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Why this move matters

State hypotheses, subgroup or interaction analyses, power considerations, multiplicity and how sex and gender enter models.

Define the variable before analysing it

State hypotheses, subgroup or interaction analyses, power considerations, multiplicity and how sex and gender enter models. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The protocol prespecifies an interaction between notification mode and gender group. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Separate significance tests in two groups do not test whether effects differ. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Plan Analysis Before Seeing Results”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 9 OF 16

9. Protect Privacy and Avoid Forced Categories

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Why this move matters

Describe consent, optional responses, small-cell suppression, category combination rules and involvement of affected communities.

Define the variable before analysing it

Describe consent, optional responses, small-cell suppression, category combination rules and involvement of affected communities. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: Participants may self-describe, skip the item and review how small groups will be reported. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Over-aggregation can erase experience; over-detail can identify people. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Protect Privacy and Avoid Forced Categories”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 10 OF 16

10. Disaggregate Recruitment, Participation and Follow-up

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Why this move matters

Report eligibility, enrolment, dropout, discontinuation and missingness by relevant sex or gender groups when appropriate.

Define the variable before analysing it

Report eligibility, enrolment, dropout, discontinuation and missingness by relevant sex or gender groups when appropriate. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The flow shows whether one group stopped using the app more often. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

A dropout difference may reflect access, burden or chance and needs investigation. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Disaggregate Recruitment, Participation and Follow-up”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 11 OF 16

11. Present Group-Specific Estimates and Direct Comparisons

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Why this move matters

Give denominators, outcome distributions, effect estimates and uncertainty for groups, plus the direct interaction or contrast.

Define the variable before analysing it

Give denominators, outcome distributions, effect estimates and uncertainty for groups, plus the direct interaction or contrast. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: Response time is shown for each group with a confidence interval for the group difference. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Group averages overlap and do not describe every individual. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Present Group-Specific Estimates and Direct Comparisons”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 12 OF 16

12. Report Null, Similar and Unexpected Findings

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Why this move matters

Publish prespecified sex- and gender-related analyses regardless of direction and distinguish absence of evidence from evidence of similarity.

Define the variable before analysing it

Publish prespecified sex- and gender-related analyses regardless of direction and distinguish absence of evidence from evidence of similarity. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The study reports a wide interval around a small observed difference rather than declaring no difference. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Low power can make important differences inconclusive. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Report Null, Similar and Unexpected Findings”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 13 OF 16

13. Analyse Intersections and Context Carefully

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Why this move matters

Consider age, ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic conditions and setting where theory and sample support it, without creating unstable cells.

Define the variable before analysing it

Consider age, ethnicity, disability, socioeconomic conditions and setting where theory and sample support it, without creating unstable cells. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The discussion examines whether device access and gender norms interact with school context. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

An intersection is not a licence for endless post-hoc subgroup searching. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Analyse Intersections and Context Carefully”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 14 OF 16

14. Use Discussion Language That Does Not Overgeneralise

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Why this move matters

Connect findings to the measured variables and population, distinguish biology from social process and avoid essentialist claims.

Define the variable before analysing it

Connect findings to the measured variables and population, distinguish biology from social process and avoid essentialist claims. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The authors say reported app use differed in this sample, not that one gender is naturally more responsive. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

A statistical association cannot explain mechanism by itself. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Use Discussion Language That Does Not Overgeneralise”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 15 OF 16

15. Explain Unknown, Mixed and Nonbinary Data Honestly

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Why this move matters

State what categories could not be measured or reported, why data are missing and how decisions affect estimates and inclusion.

Define the variable before analysing it

State what categories could not be measured or reported, why data are missing and how decisions affect estimates and inclusion. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The limitations note small nonbinary numbers and describe privacy-preserving reporting. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Unknown is information about the dataset, not a participant identity. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Explain Unknown, Mixed and Nonbinary Data Honestly”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 16 OF 16

16. Use SAGER as an Editorial Conversation, Not a Punitive Score

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Why this move matters

Authors, reviewers and editors should ask what is relevant, what was done and what cannot now be recovered, then improve future design.

Define the variable before analysing it

Authors, reviewers and editors should ask what is relevant, what was done and what cannot now be recovered, then improve future design. State whether the study records sex, gender, both or neither; how the variable was determined; which categories were available; and why it matters to the question.

Follow one claim across the paper

Worked example: The review requests clearer measurement and tempered claims without demanding an invalid post-hoc analysis. Check that the title, background, sampling, measurements, analysis, results and discussion use consistent terms and do not silently switch from sex to gender.

Report differences and similarities responsibly

Give denominators, estimates and uncertainty. Distinguish prespecified analyses from exploratory ones, and do not turn absence of statistical evidence into proof that groups are identical.

Respect people and evidence

Reporting guidance cannot repair absent data or inadequate design. Inclusive language and transparent categories improve interpretation, but reporting cannot recover variables never measured or justify stereotypes about individuals.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Use SAGER as an Editorial Conversation, Not a Punitive Score”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports research design, medicine, public health, engineering, data science, education research, journal editing and science communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

PRACTICE LAB

Build a sex-and-gender variable decision trail

Student route

1. Choose one original report inside this guide’s scope.
2. Copy its objective and underline actor, action, context, evidence and intended decision.
3. Draw the specific reasoning chain used in this article.
4. Mark each step reported, inferred, contested or unknown.
5. Rewrite the conclusion so it preserves the narrowest important limitation.

Parent or teacher route

Ask the learner to explain SAGER’s central reporting method twice: once to a classmate and once to a method specialist. Praise a precise correction and a well-stated unknown; both show disciplined attention to evidence.

Early-career route

Create a one-page SAGER audit with source link, date checked, scope, method logic, decisive wording, contrary evidence, limit and next action. A colleague should be able to continue without guessing.

Continue with eduKate’s guides to reading course and career information and giving useful feedback in group projects.

USEFUL NEXT READING

Connect this narrow owner to its neighbour

Read the CONSORT-Equity trial-reporting guide for a related but different reader job. Return here when the question is specifically how to use sex and gender terms precisely enough for readers to understand who and what was studied. This boundary keeps one canonical owner per intent.

For English practice across research, school and career communication, visit the English at work and in public life guide.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Questions students and parents often ask

What does SAGER stand for?

Sex and Gender Equity in Research.

Are sex and gender synonyms?

No. They describe different, sometimes related constructs and should be defined as measured.

Must every paper test differences?

Only when relevant and supported by design; authors should still report scope and variables transparently.

What if a study included only one sex?

State it in the title or abstract when relevant, justify it and limit generalisation.

Does a non-significant result prove groups are the same?

No. Examine the estimate, uncertainty, design and power.

Can SAGER recover missing variables?

No. It can expose the limitation and improve future research.