Top 100 Mountain Geography Vocabulary Words | Nepal

A mountain photograph gives you a view; geography helps you ask what the view leaves out. Where does the water go? Which line marks a ridge, and which marks a boundary drawn by people? This guide teaches 100 mountain geography vocabulary words in English, with clear definitions, natural collocations and original examples for reading landscapes and explaining their relationships.

Nepal is a rewarding setting because its geography includes high mountain environments as well as hills and lowland plains. ICIMOD’s glacier and river-basin work provides a specific route into questions about ice, water, measurement and change. Nepal is not one summit, one climate or one community, and a photograph of snow cannot represent the whole country.

Use a reliable map or institutional image alongside one group of ten words. Describe a feature, connect it to a process and identify what evidence you would need next. “Top 100” is a curated learning selection, not a measured frequency ranking. These are mainly English geography terms taught through Nepal; the activities are map-reading and communication exercises, not mountain travel instructions.

Can you tell height, steepness and distance apart?

Imagine two points at the same elevation on opposite sides of a valley. They share a height reference, but they may be far apart and separated by steep ground. Try explaining all three relationships: elevation, horizontal distance and slope. If these become one idea of “high”, begin with groups 1 and 7.

Now compare two glacier images taken in different months. Does a difference in white area prove the same change in glacier ice? Seasonal snow, image conditions and mapping method may matter. If you immediately write a large conclusion from one visual difference, begin with groups 5, 6 and 10.

A student can label a fictional map; a parent can ask which direction water would flow; a teacher can change the contour interval or image date and inspect the revised explanation. The aim is to make the next missing relationship visible, without treating unfamiliar terminology as evidence that someone cannot think geographically.

Contents: find a useful word group

Landforms, materials, weather, rivers and glacier form: 1–50

1–10: Describe the shape of the land

11–20: Connect rock and movement

21–30: Distinguish weather, climate and exposure

31–40: Follow water through a connected network

41–50: Identify glacier features

Glacier change, maps, observations, people and evidence: 51–100

51–60: Explain glacier gain, loss and observation

61–70: Read the map before reading a route into it

71–80: Understand how observations are made

81–90: Include habitats and people in the landscape

91–100: Make a geographical claim that fits the evidence

Worked example · Practice · Speaking and writing · Questions · Sources

Use these terms to separate height from shape. A peak is a feature; elevation is a measured relationship to a reference.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
1	mountain	A substantial natural elevation of land; definitions vary by context.	mountain landscape	The learner describes the mountain without inventing a universal height threshold.
2	summit	The highest point of a mountain or a particular rise.	mountain summit	The map marks the summit separately from the nearby viewpoint.
3	ridge	An elongated raised crest of land.	mountain ridge	The ridge separates two sides of the fictional valley system.
4	valley	An elongated lower area between higher ground.	river valley	The class follows the valley before tracing its stream.
5	slope	An inclined land surface, or its degree of inclination.	steep slope	The slope becomes steeper where equal-interval contours lie closer together.
6	relief	The variation in elevation within a specified area.	local relief	The learner states the area before comparing its relief with another region.
7	elevation	Height above a stated reference surface, commonly mean sea level.	summit elevation	The caption gives elevation with its reference rather than a floating number.
8	aspect	The compass direction towards which a slope faces.	slope aspect	The diagram labels aspect separately from how steep the ground is.
9	pass	A lower passage through a ridge or between higher areas.	mountain pass	The map identifies a pass without declaring it an available travel route.
10	plateau	An extensive relatively level area elevated above its surroundings.	upland plateau	The learner checks the landform before calling every high area a plateau.

High, steep and remote are not interchangeable. A point can have high elevation but stand on gentle local terrain. A line on a map can identify a pass without establishing present access, permission or suitability for travel.

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A landform can record more than one process. These are broad earth-science terms, not a diagnosis of one photographed slope.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
11	bedrock	The underlying consolidated rock beneath soil or loose deposits.	exposed bedrock	The photograph shows bedrock where the surface covering is absent.
12	stratum	A distinct layer of rock or sediment; plural strata.	sedimentary stratum	The learner follows one stratum across the drawing before comparing layers.
13	fault	A fracture or zone along which rock has moved.	geological fault	The source identifies a fault rather than the viewer guessing from a straight line.
14	uplift	An increase in the elevation of a land area through geological processes.	tectonic uplift	The explanation distinguishes uplift from the growth of a snow cover.
15	weathering	The breakdown or alteration of material at or near Earth's surface.	rock weathering	The learner distinguishes weathering in place from the transport of fragments.
16	erosion	The removal and transport of material by processes such as flowing water or ice.	glacial erosion	The diagram connects erosion with a moving agent.
17	deposition	The laying down of transported material.	sediment deposition	The model shows deposition where the moving water loses transporting capacity.
18	sediment	Loose particles or material transported or deposited by natural processes.	river sediment	The sample description names sediment without assuming one grain size.
19	scree	Loose rock fragments accumulated on a slope, often below cliffs.	scree slope	The caption identifies scree without proposing a route across it.
20	landslide	The downslope movement of rock, soil or debris under gravity.	landslide deposit	The record identifies a landslide deposit, not merely any uneven ground.

Weathering can produce fragments that erosion later moves and deposition leaves elsewhere. This three-part distinction is useful in a simple sentence. It does not mean every feature has one cause or that an old deposit predicts a current event.

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Mountain conditions vary with location, elevation, season and other factors. A vocabulary definition cannot supply the weather for a particular day.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
21	weather	Atmospheric conditions at a particular place and time.	mountain weather	The source dates the weather observation before the learner summarises it.
22	climate	Patterns and statistics of weather over a sufficiently long period.	regional climate	The explanation uses climate for a long-term pattern rather than one wet afternoon.
23	precipitation	Water reaching the surface as rain, snow or other forms.	seasonal precipitation	The chart separates precipitation amount from its form.
24	monsoon	A seasonal wind-system shift associated with marked rainfall patterns.	summer monsoon	The learner uses monsoon for the seasonal system, not any heavy shower.
25	windward	Facing towards the direction from which the relevant wind comes.	windward slope	The diagram identifies the wind before labelling the windward side.
26	leeward	On the side sheltered from the relevant wind direction.	leeward side	The leeward side is labelled in relation to the stated airflow.
27	rain shadow	An area with reduced precipitation associated with mountain sheltering effects.	rain-shadow effect	The model illustrates a rain shadow without assigning identical rainfall everywhere.
28	snowline	A boundary relating to snow cover; specify whether seasonal or longer-term.	seasonal snowline	The caption calls it a seasonal snowline and includes the image date.
29	freeze-thaw	Repeated freezing and thawing, relevant to some weathering processes.	freeze-thaw weathering	The explanation links freeze-thaw to water and temperature conditions.
30	microclimate	The climate of a relatively small, locally distinct setting.	slope microclimate	The study treats microclimate as a measured setting rather than a national label.

Do not confuse a visible snowline on one day with a permanent boundary. A useful caption names the date, place and kind of boundary being discussed. Precision about time is part of geography, not an optional note added afterwards.

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Water vocabulary works best when upstream and downstream remain connected. A river basin is not the same thing as an administrative district.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
31	headwaters	The upper source streams or source area of a river system.	river headwaters	The map exercise begins at the headwaters and follows connected channels.
32	tributary	A stream or river flowing into another stream, river or lake.	major tributary	The learner traces the tributary to its junction with the main river.
33	confluence	The meeting of two or more flowing watercourses.	river confluence	The confluence is marked where the two drawn channels join.
34	catchment	The area draining water towards a specified outlet; also drainage basin.	river catchment	The catchment boundary follows the drainage divide in the model.
35	watershed	A drainage divide or, in some usage, a drainage basin; clarify the sense.	watershed boundary	The learner explains which meaning of watershed the source uses.
36	runoff	Water flowing over land or through a drainage system after input.	surface runoff	The diagram follows runoff from the hillside towards the stream.
37	discharge	The volume of water passing a point per unit time.	river discharge	The chart gives discharge with units rather than treating it as river width.
38	gradient	A rate of change over distance; in terrain, change in height per distance.	channel gradient	The learner states the distances used to compare channel gradient.
39	sediment load	The sediment carried by flowing water over a stated basis.	river sediment load	The report separates sediment load from the volume of water alone.
40	floodplain	Relatively low land beside a river shaped by flooding and deposition.	river floodplain	The map marks a floodplain without predicting when it will next flood.

ICIMOD’s regional lake inventory uses the Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali river basins. Basin boundaries can cross national borders. Use the inventory’s actual geographical scope instead of turning every included lake into a lake located in Nepal.

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A glacier is moving land ice, not simply any large white patch. These terms distinguish its parts and associated landforms.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
41	glacier	A persistent mass of land ice that flows under its own weight.	valley glacier	The learner identifies the glacier using the source rather than snow colour alone.
42	valley glacier	A glacier flowing through a mountain valley.	mountain valley glacier	The diagram shows a valley glacier constrained by the surrounding terrain.
43	accumulation zone	The part of a glacier where mass gain exceeds loss over the specified period.	glacier accumulation zone	The chart labels the accumulation zone for the study period.
44	ablation zone	The part of a glacier where mass loss exceeds gain over the specified period.	glacier ablation zone	The learner connects the ablation zone with the stated mass budget.
45	terminus	The end or front of a glacier; also called its snout.	glacier terminus	The mapped terminus changes position between the two dated records.
46	crevasse	A fracture or deep crack in glacier ice.	glacier crevasse	The educator labels a crevasse using an institutional image.
47	moraine	An accumulation of debris associated with glacial transport or deposition.	lateral moraine	The source identifies a moraine beside the glacier's margin.
48	till	Sediment deposited directly by glacier ice, commonly poorly sorted.	glacial till	The report distinguishes till from material sorted by flowing water.
49	cirque	A bowl-like hollow shaped by glacial erosion near a mountain headwall.	glacial cirque	The learner describes the cirque without treating it as an impact crater.
50	glacial lake	A lake whose formation is associated with glacial processes.	moraine-dammed glacial lake	The inventory identifies a glacial lake and explains its mapping criteria.

The snow and ice in a photograph may conceal important boundaries. A glacier terminus can retreat while the ice itself continues flowing towards its lower end. Retreat describes a changing boundary, not ice reversing direction like a vehicle.

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These words describe processes and measures. Area, length, thickness and mass are different quantities and should not be substituted for one another.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
51	accumulation	Processes adding mass to a glacier, including snowfall retained within the system.	snow accumulation	The study estimates accumulation for a defined period.
52	ablation	Processes removing glacier mass, including melting and sublimation.	glacier ablation	The explanation treats ablation as broader than surface melting alone.
53	melting	The change from solid ice or snow to liquid water.	surface melting	The learner distinguishes melting from ice flowing downslope.
54	sublimation	The direct change from solid to vapour without a liquid stage.	snow sublimation	The diagram labels sublimation separately from melting.
55	firn	Snow surviving through a melt season and undergoing transformation towards glacier ice.	compacted firn	The educator uses firn for an intermediate material rather than fresh snowfall.
56	mass balance	The difference between glacier mass gains and losses over a specified period.	annual mass balance	The report gives mass balance without confusing it with a length change.
57	retreat	A movement of a glacier's terminus back towards its upper region.	glacier retreat	The map records retreat of the terminus while ice continues to flow.
58	advance	An extension of a glacier's terminus farther down its path.	glacier advance	The learner reports advance without claiming every regional glacier behaves alike.
59	debris cover	Rock fragments and other material covering part of a glacier surface.	thick debris cover	The source maps debris cover rather than classifying all dark surfaces as ice-free.
60	permafrost	Ground remaining at or below freezing for at least two consecutive years.	mountain permafrost	The learner distinguishes permafrost from a seasonal layer of surface snow.

A single glacier is not a complete survey of a region. If a study measures mapped area, report area. Do not quietly turn it into ice volume, mass loss or a precise future water supply unless the source actually supports that step.

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A map selects and represents information. Its scale, reference system and purpose shape what you can conclude.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
61	contour	A line joining points of equal elevation on a map.	contour line	The contour connects equal heights rather than tracing a footpath.
62	contour interval	The vertical difference between successive contour levels.	twenty-metre contour interval	The learner checks the contour interval before calculating the height change.
63	scale	The relationship between represented distance and corresponding real-world distance.	map scale	The map scale turns a measured line into a horizontal distance.
64	legend	The explanation of symbols and conventions used in a map.	map legend	The learner reads the legend before interpreting the shaded area.
65	coordinate	A value in a reference system used to locate a point.	map coordinate	The caption gives the coordinate system rather than an unexplained number pair.
66	latitude	Angular position north or south of the equator.	latitude value	The map labels latitude separately from height.
67	longitude	Angular position east or west of a reference meridian.	longitude value	The learner records longitude with the stated reference system.
68	projection	A method for representing Earth's curved surface on a plane.	map projection	The source identifies the projection so distance comparisons can be interpreted properly.
69	resolution	The level of spatial detail represented or distinguished by data or an image.	spatial resolution	The learner checks resolution before claiming to see a narrow feature.
70	topography	The surface form and arrangement of physical features of an area.	mountain topography	The map represents topography without explaining every social relationship.

Contour spacing must be compared on maps with compatible scale and contour interval. Closely spaced lines indicate steeper terrain in that shared context; they are not a universal visual test across unrelated maps.

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A coloured map is an output of choices and measurements. These terms help you ask how a result was produced.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
71	survey	A systematic collection of information or measurements for a defined purpose.	terrain survey	The learner states what the survey measured and when.
72	remote sensing	Obtaining information about a surface from a distance, often using sensors on aircraft or satellites.	satellite remote sensing	The study uses remote sensing alongside other evidence.
73	satellite imagery	Images or related visual data acquired by satellite instruments.	dated satellite imagery	The comparison uses satellite imagery with clearly identified acquisition dates.
74	aerial photograph	An image taken from an airborne platform.	historical aerial photograph	The record distinguishes an aerial photograph from a drawn reconstruction.
75	fieldwork	Research or observation carried out in the setting being studied.	geographical fieldwork	The report explains fieldwork without the classroom task requiring a mountain visit.
76	transect	A line or strip along which observations are systematically collected.	vegetation transect	The diagram shows a transect crossing several elevation bands.
77	sample	A selected portion of a larger population or material used for study.	sediment sample	The learner does not treat one sample as a complete basin survey.
78	inventory	An organised record of features identified under stated criteria.	glacial-lake inventory	The inventory's date and criteria remain attached to its lake count.
79	classification	The assignment of observations to defined categories.	land-cover classification	The learner checks classification rules before comparing coloured maps.
80	validation	Checking a result against appropriate independent evidence or criteria.	map validation	The methods note describes validation rather than simply repeating the output.

An inventory’s publication year need not be the acquisition year of every image it uses. Keep the measurement date, method and release date separate. This habit prevents an older observation from being presented as a new survey.

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Physical geography supports questions about life and land use. It does not predict a person’s identity or choices from elevation alone.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
81	habitat	The environment in which an organism lives.	mountain habitat	The source describes a habitat rather than assuming life disappears above the village.
82	alpine	Relating to high mountain environments, often above the tree line in ecological usage.	alpine vegetation	The learner checks the source's use of alpine before applying it to every slope.
83	treeline	A boundary beyond which trees do not form the relevant growth cover.	upper treeline	The study maps treeline using its stated criteria.
84	terrace	A step-like surface, natural or constructed; specify which.	agricultural terrace	The record identifies a terrace used for cultivation rather than a natural river step.
85	settlement	A place where people live, with its built and social arrangements.	valley settlement	The map locates a settlement without inventing residents' occupations.
86	land use	The purposes and activities for which people use an area.	mountain land use	The learner distinguishes land use from the vegetation visible in an image.
87	infrastructure	Physical and organisational systems supporting activities and services.	local infrastructure	The report names infrastructure rather than treating a road as the whole system.
88	upstream	Towards a river's source or an earlier point in its flow.	upstream community	The diagram places upstream in relation to water flow, not north.
89	downstream	In the direction of a river's flow towards its outlet.	downstream water use	The learner explains downstream without assuming it means south.
90	interdependence	A relationship in which parts affect or rely on one another.	upstream-downstream interdependence	The paragraph uses interdependence to connect water, settlements and decisions.

Nepal’s mountain geography is also lived geography. A map symbol for settlement represents people with varied languages, work and histories. Do not infer a community’s complete culture from the altitude or architecture visible in one photograph.

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These terms help you explain results, limits and changes. They are especially useful when comparing records made at different times.

No.	Word or term	Meaning and usage	Natural collocation	Original example
91	hazard	A potentially damaging event, process or condition.	mountain hazard	The report identifies a hazard without predicting an event from a vocabulary definition.
92	exposure	The presence of people or assets where a hazard could affect them.	settlement exposure	The map exercise changes exposure by relocating the fictional building.
93	risk	The possibility and consequences of harm, considered with relevant conditions.	flood risk	The explanation distinguishes risk from the mere presence of a lake.
94	monitoring	Repeated observation to follow a condition or process over time.	glacier monitoring	The study describes monitoring across dates rather than one photograph.
95	baseline	A defined starting reference used for comparison.	mapping baseline	The learner checks the baseline before calculating change.
96	trend	A pattern of change across a series of observations.	long-term trend	The chart supports a trend only across the period actually sampled.
97	uncertainty	The limits of precision or knowledge in a result or statement.	measurement uncertainty	The summary preserves uncertainty instead of reporting an exact unsupported boundary.
98	correlation	An association between variables, not by itself proof of cause.	observed correlation	The learner distinguishes correlation from a demonstrated mechanism.
99	mechanism	The process through which a change or effect occurs.	erosion mechanism	The explanation names a mechanism and identifies the evidence for it.
100	comparison	An examination of similarities or differences using compatible criteria.	dated comparison	The comparison keeps scale, season and method visible.

A lake inventory can identify features for further assessment without predicting that every lake will fail. Keep hazard, exposure and risk distinct. A word list should make a scientific account easier to read, not inflate its conclusions.

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Worked example: four contour levels, one clear calculation

Imagine an original classroom map with contour levels at 400, 420, 440 and 460 metres above its stated reference. The contour interval is 20 metres. From the first listed contour to the last, the elevation difference is 60 metres: three intervals, not four. The number of labelled lines is not the number of gaps between them.

Now suppose the horizontal distance between the 400-metre and 460-metre points is 300 metres. The average rise-to-run gradient is 60 divided by 300, or 0.2, equivalent to 20 per cent. This is a teaching calculation using invented values, not a measurement of a Nepalese path.

The calculation establishes an average relationship between two points. It does not tell you the steepness of every short section, the ground condition, access or travel time. The useful English sentence is: “Across the stated horizontal distance, elevation increases by 60 metres, giving an average gradient of 20 per cent.”

Change the horizontal distance to 600 metres while keeping the same height difference. The average gradient becomes 10 per cent. Height has not changed, but the relationship to distance has. This small revision tests whether the learner understands gradient rather than merely remembers a formula.

For a verbal task, give a partner the contour levels without showing the map. Ask them to explain the interval and the overall elevation difference. If they answer 80 metres, return to the relationship between lines and gaps before adding a more difficult calculation.

A Nepal glacier question begins with a date and a method

ICIMOD’s work connects snow, ice and permafrost with downstream communities in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. Its Nepal-related glacier and lake records offer concrete opportunities to read the scope of an inventory. A regional basin study may include areas in Nepal and neighbouring countries; preserve those boundaries when reporting it.

Suppose a fictional comparison shows less mapped white area in a later image. Before calling this glacier loss, ask whether the images show the same season, whether seasonal snow was separated from glacier ice, and whether debris-covered ice was mapped consistently. The initial observation may be useful while its interpretation still needs work.

Even a sound measurement of glacier area is not automatically a measurement of mass balance. A terminus position is another quantity again. Use the term the study measures, and distinguish a boundary moving from the ice flowing within it. These distinctions keep a short summary scientifically meaningful.

The published Nepal learning guide makes consistent method and date central to reading glacier maps. Its broader route also includes lowland habitats and craft knowledge. That wider view is helpful: the high mountains are important without becoming the only landscape or learning setting in the country.

An original map conversation: ask what the symbol represents

Learner: “The blue shape is dangerous.” Partner: “What does blue mean in the legend?” Learner: “A mapped lake.” Partner: “Does that symbol establish its risk?” Learner: “No. We would need an assessment of the lake, possible processes and what could be affected.” This is an invented classroom conversation, not a quotation from a scientist.

The learner has not abandoned the question. They have made it answerable. A map feature, a hazard process and an exposed community belong to different parts of the explanation. Geography vocabulary lets those parts connect without pretending the symbol alone contains the conclusion.

Try the exchange with a settlement dot, a glacier outline or a shaded slope. One partner makes a claim; the other asks which map element and source support it. Then write a three-sentence explanation containing an observation, a relationship and a limit.

Practice: keep the map, measure and meaning connected

Answers and explanations

A. The interval is 50 metres and the difference is 150 metres. There are three intervals between four successive contour levels.

B. No. Downstream follows the direction of water flow towards an outlet; that direction can change along a river.

C. No. Area and mass are different quantities. An area comparison alone does not establish an identical proportional mass change.

D. For example: “The later image shows less visible snow cover. Comparable seasons and a consistent glacier-mapping method are needed before interpreting the difference as glacier-area change.” It does not establish a national rate.

E. Name the actual basin and included territories. Do not classify every feature as located in Nepal merely because Nepal appears in the study title.

F. For example: “The mapped terminus has shifted back towards the upper glacier. Ice within the glacier can still flow towards its lower end.”

From recognising the word to explaining a new landscape

Begin with ridge, valley, elevation, contour, scale, tributary, catchment, glacier, terminus and uncertainty. Retrieve each word using a sketch, then explain three relationships without the list. An accurate connection between two terms is more useful than a fluent recital of ten definitions.

Later, choose a new institutional map or image with a date and legend. Write a 100-word explanation for someone who has not seen it. Include one measurement, one process and one thing the source does not establish. Ask a partner to identify which sentence belongs to each category.

Parents can ask the learner to explain a map symbol rather than test every technical word at once. Teachers can change the contour interval, scale or comparison date. A stronger fresh answer should adjust the relevant reasoning, not simply reuse the first paragraph with a different place name.

These skills transfer into geography, environmental reporting, mapping, planning and science communication. Formal fieldwork and professional assessments require their own methods and expertise. For English learning, a carefully read source and a clearly explained relationship are already substantial progress.

Frequently asked questions

Is Nepal entirely mountainous?

No. Nepal includes high mountains, hill regions and lowland plains. Use the specific region and map rather than letting one summit photograph represent the whole country.

Is a glacier just permanent snow?

No. A glacier is a body of ice that flows under its own weight. Snow cover can be part of its system without every snow patch being a glacier.

Are catchment and watershed always identical?

Usage varies. Catchment commonly means a drainage area; watershed can mean either an area or its divide. Read and state the source’s sense.

Does a retreating glacier flow uphill?

No. Retreat concerns the changing terminus position, while the ice can continue flowing towards the lower glacier.

Do these terms qualify me to plan a mountain journey?

No. They support geography reading and communication. Current access, conditions and appropriate practical expertise are separate requirements.

Sources and the scope of this guide

Sources checked on 15 October 2026. Definitions, map figures, dialogues and calculations are original educational material. No current route, hazard warning or measured national glacier-loss rate is supplied.

Cambridge Dictionary: contour — ordinary English and specialist map usage.

ICIMOD: Glaciers — the relationship between glacier processes, observation and downstream systems.

ICIMOD: Glacial-lake inventory for the Koshi, Gandaki and Karnali basins — the scope of a regional inventory involving Nepal and neighbouring territories.

National Snow and Ice Data Center: Glaciers — glacier formation, flow and basic distinctions.

National Snow and Ice Data Center: Cryosphere Glossary — specialist snow and ice vocabulary.

USGS: Glossary of Glacier Terminology — additional glacier and landform terminology.

ICIMOD: Glaciers of Nepal 2010 record — a dated data record, not a new measurement merely because its webpage is current.

Next: explain one landscape relationship in three sentences

Choose a reliable map, name one feature and explain a connection to another. End with a question requiring a different kind of evidence. You have then used vocabulary to turn a view into an enquiry.

The published English Tuition | Nepal separates conceptual understanding from the language needed to express it. The Nepal learning guide extends the enquiry through glacier maps, lowland habitats, museums and craft.

Use the Master English Vocabulary Guide for retrieval and transfer methods. Match formal school preparation to the learner’s actual course; the country theme does not make different national qualifications equivalent.