What Vocabulary Words Must We Teach For Children | Age 16

At sixteen, the most useful vocabulary helps a young person judge evidence, understand practical commitments, explain choices, handle information responsibly and advocate for themselves without misrepresenting other people. Begin with provenance, corroborate, inference, base rate, ambiguity, accountability, authorisation, consent, obligation, discretionary, dependency, escalate, synthesis, nuance and jurisdiction. These words have value in reading, work-related experiences, personal messages, community life and everyday decisions.

Learning vocabulary at sixteen is not simply preparation for examinations. Teenagers are approaching situations where a vague instruction can waste time, a misleading comparison can distort a decision and an unclear boundary can cause real discomfort. The right word helps them ask what a statement means, what they have agreed to, who is affected and what remains uncertain. This guide offers practical teaching targets and examples, not a compulsory age-sixteen word count or a substitute for qualified advice.

• Evidence: provenance, source, corroborate, credible, verify, uncertainty, discrepancy, context.
• Quantitative reasoning: base rate, denominator, sample, variable, proportion, risk, correlation.
• Argument and writing: thesis, counterargument, nuance, concession, synthesis, coherence, precision.
• Practical life: commitment, obligation, recurring, discretionary, feasible, dependency, deadline.
• Safety and relationships: consent, authorisation, privacy, assertive, boundary, escalate, advocate.
• Method: understand a word, test its limits, practise it in another context, and choose the clearest wording.

The useful transition: from knowing words to using judgement

At sixteen, a teenager may be able to pronounce all the words in a public notice while misunderstanding which conditions apply. Another may recite ‘correlation is not causation’ without explaining how two variables relate. The next step in vocabulary development is depth: meaning, limitation, appropriate context and independent use. A useful word allows a better question or more accurate decision, not merely a longer sentence.

Evidence-informed literacy guidance supports explicit word teaching, varied contexts and discussion about meaning. The US Institute of Education Sciences’ guides for older readers discuss word and world knowledge, comprehension strategies and direct vocabulary instruction. These recommendations support the method but do not prescribe one universal age-sixteen vocabulary inventory.

1. Trace where information came from

A source may be accurate but old, relevant but incomplete, or repeated by many outlets that all copied the same original statement. Sixteen-year-olds benefit from knowing how to trace information instead of equating repetition with proof.

• provenance — the origin and history of information or an object. Example: Check the provenance of the quotation.
• source — the origin of reported information. Example: Identify the source of the timetable.
• primary source — original material or firsthand evidence relevant to a question. Example: The meeting minutes may be a primary source for what was recorded.
• secondary source — an account discussing or interpreting other sources. Example: A history overview often uses several sources.
• corroborate — support an account with independent additional evidence. Example: Find independent records to corroborate the date.
• verify — check whether information is correct or authentic. Example: Verify the venue on the organiser’s own site.
• credible — worthy of belief for a particular relevant reason. Example: The expert may be credible within their specialty.
• current — up to date for the intended use. Example: The schedule must be current.
• discrepancy — a difference between things expected to agree. Example: The figures show a discrepancy.
• context — surrounding facts needed to understand information. Example: Read the whole statement in context.

A real example

Worked example. A quotation appears on several social posts. Ask where the quotation originally came from, whether the wording is complete and whether the speaker and date are documented. A dozen reposts may all descend from one mistaken caption. Find original material if available and note what it confirms. If you cannot verify the quote, say so instead of treating repetition as corroboration.

Provenance does not guarantee accuracy: original records can contain errors or reflect limited viewpoints. A secondary source can sometimes explain context better than a single primary source. Check suitability for the question instead of ranking all sources by one simple label.

Use the same process when reading a historical claim, a public notice or a book quotation. Ask who produced it, when, for what purpose and what evidence would settle a disputed detail.

2. Understand risk, rates and uncertainty

A number is not meaningful until the reader knows what was counted and what it is being compared with. Probabilities, ranges and samples are useful in everyday reasoning, but they require careful language and must not be used to predict an individual outcome with certainty.

• base rate — how common something is within a relevant population. Example: Know the base rate before interpreting a rare event.
• denominator — the total or reference quantity used in a proportion. Example: Check the denominator behind the percentage.
• sample — a subset selected from a wider group. Example: The survey sample included twenty members.
• representative — reflecting relevant features of the population. Example: A small convenience sample may not be representative.
• risk — the possibility of an unwanted event or outcome. Example: Assess the risk in context rather than by a slogan.
• likelihood — how probable an event is. Example: The likelihood depends on the stated conditions.
• conditional — dependent on a specified condition. Example: The forecast is conditional on the weather pattern.
• correlation — a relationship in how variables change together. Example: Correlation alone does not prove causation.
• causation — one factor producing an effect. Example: Causation requires stronger evidence than a simple pattern.
• uncertainty — the limits of what is known or measured. Example: State uncertainty rather than invent exactness.

A real example

Worked example. A fictional poster says an outcome rose by fifty per cent. Ask whether it rose from two cases to three, or from two hundred to three hundred. Both changes are fifty per cent, but the scale and practical significance differ. Then ask who was counted, whether the measurement changed and which conclusion the figures really support. The vocabulary creates better questions before anyone accepts an alarming or impressive statement.

Risk words are easy to misuse. A population statistic does not determine what will happen to a particular person. For health, safety or financial choices, rely on qualified guidance and current trustworthy information, not a teenager’s informal calculation from a vocabulary exercise.

Try a small table of journey times or game scores. Identify its range, sample size and a condition that might change the result. Write a statement that describes the numbers without claiming more than they show.

3. Build arguments without misrepresenting others

Reasoned communication is strongest when a teenager can summarise another view fairly, identify the question being answered and state the actual limits of an argument. A forceful tone does not make weak evidence stronger.

• thesis — the central position developed in an argument. Example: State the thesis in one clear sentence.
• premise — a starting statement used in reasoning. Example: The proposal assumes the hall is available.
• counterargument — a reason challenging the main position. Example: The counterargument concerns accessibility.
• rebuttal — a response that addresses an objection. Example: The rebuttal should address the stated concern.
• concession — an acknowledgement of a valid opposing point. Example: Concede that the alternative costs less.
• nuance — a subtle distinction important to meaning. Example: The nuanced answer recognises different needs.
• equivocation — using a word in different senses within an argument so reasoning is misleading. Example: Avoid equivocation about what ‘free’ means.
• fallacy — an error in reasoning. Example: Attacking the speaker does not refute their evidence.
• implication — something suggested by or following from information. Example: The revised schedule has implications for commuters.
• qualify — limit or specify a claim to avoid overstatement. Example: Qualify always to usually if necessary.

A real example

Worked example. A group argues about whether a meeting should be online. One person says online is more convenient, another says meeting in person improves interaction. Have the teenager state each view in a way its supporter would recognise. Then name the relevant criterion, acknowledge a valid counterargument and reach a qualified conclusion. One format may be preferable for one purpose without being universally best.

Equivocation deserves a concrete example: ‘free’ can mean no payment now, no payment ever or free from a particular restriction. An argument that switches meanings without warning can mislead. Likewise, fallacy is not a label for someone whose conclusion you dislike; explain the reasoning problem respectfully.

Discuss a harmless book recommendation, route choice or event format. Ask the teen to give a fair summary of the opposing position before offering their own. The goal is intellectual honesty, not winning a debate.

4. Write and speak with precision

Vocabulary for communicating an idea is different from collecting colourful synonyms. Teenagers need the ability to structure information clearly for an audience, distinguish summary from paraphrase and recognise when tone changes the meaning.

• synthesis — combining information into a coherent understanding. Example: Write a synthesis of the two sources.
• paraphrase — express the same idea in different words. Example: Paraphrase the instruction without changing it.
• summarise — select the central ideas concisely. Example: Summarise the article in three sentences.
• coherence — logical connection and consistency in a message. Example: Improve coherence by ordering the points.
• cohesion — the links that hold sentences and parts of a text together. Example: Use transitions to improve cohesion.
• register — the style of language suitable for the audience. Example: Use an appropriate register for a formal enquiry.
• tone — the attitude conveyed by wording. Example: Choose a calm and respectful tone.
• ambiguous — reasonably open to more than one meaning. Example: The instruction is ambiguous about the deadline.
• concise — clear while using no more words than needed. Example: Make the request concise but complete.
• precise — specific and accurate enough for the purpose. Example: Use precise dates and responsibilities.

A real example

Worked example. Compare ‘Please send it soon’ with ‘Please send the signed form by Friday at 4 pm’. The first message is ambiguous about the object and deadline. The second adds precise information without becoming complicated. Then rewrite it for a friend and a formal recipient; change register and tone while preserving the facts. This is a practical writing skill beyond school.

Concise does not mean removing essential context. A summary should leave out minor detail but preserve the central meaning. A paraphrase should not silently change a condition or deadline. A synthesis combines information from sources rather than merely placing two summaries next to one another.

Choose a public notice, fictional email or project instruction and ask which details could be misunderstood. Draft a clearer version and explain why every added word serves the reader.

5. Understand commitments, costs and conditions

Sixteen-year-olds may hear about subscriptions, work arrangements and household budgets. Practical vocabulary helps them understand what a commitment means and when to ask a trusted adult or qualified adviser. It does not authorise independent financial or contractual decisions.

• commitment — an obligation or promise to do something. Example: Check the commitment before agreeing to volunteer.
• obligation — a duty arising from a rule, promise or arrangement. Example: The agreement describes the obligations.
• recurring — happening repeatedly on a schedule. Example: The service has a recurring charge.
• discretionary — optional rather than essential within a stated budget. Example: A treat may be discretionary spending.
• fixed — not changing under the specified conditions. Example: The membership has a fixed monthly price.
• variable — capable of changing. Example: Travel costs may be variable.
• budget — a plan for using limited resources. Example: The family set a budget for supplies.
• affordable — within resources without unacceptable strain. Example: An item can be affordable for one person but not another.
• eligibility — meeting conditions to qualify for something. Example: Check eligibility in the official notice.
• penalty — a disadvantage or charge imposed for breaking a stated condition. Example: Read any listed cancellation penalty carefully.

A real example

Worked example. An imaginary membership offer says ‘First month free, then a monthly fee’. Ask whether free applies to the entire arrangement or only the first month. Identify recurring charges, cancellation conditions and any commitment. The teenager should learn to read conditions and ask sensible questions, while an adult handles real account opening and financial decisions.

Price and value are not synonyms. An inexpensive item may be poor value if it does not serve its purpose; a more expensive item is not automatically better. A contract’s precise legal effect depends on the terms and applicable law, so a vocabulary guide cannot replace authoritative or professional advice.

Use household examples to distinguish fixed and variable costs, essential and discretionary spending, and a one-time purchase from a recurring charge. Discuss how to ask for clarification before agreeing.

6. Project work and accountability

A clear plan gives each person a shared picture of the result, timing, responsibilities and next steps. Project vocabulary is useful in voluntary activities and hobbies before entering formal employment.

• scope — the boundaries of what a task includes. Example: Clarify the scope before beginning.
• deliverable — the specific result to be produced. Example: The deliverable is a completed display.
• milestone — an important stage within a project. Example: The first draft is a milestone.
• dependency — something that must be completed or available before another step can happen. Example: Printing depends on final approval.
• delegate — assign a task or responsibility to someone. Example: Delegate tasks with clear instructions.
• coordinate — organise people or tasks to work together. Example: Coordinate the preparation schedule.
• escalate — bring an issue to someone with greater responsibility when necessary. Example: Escalate a serious safety concern to an adult.
• follow-up — a later action or communication to continue a matter. Example: Send a follow-up to confirm the decision.
• accountability — being answerable for an action or responsibility. Example: Accountability includes explaining and correcting mistakes.
• contingency — a plan for a possible disruption. Example: Prepare a contingency if the venue is unavailable.

A real example

Worked example. A group plans a small community display. Name the deliverable, scope and deadlines. Identify a dependency: printing cannot begin before the final design is approved. Delegate manageable tasks and plan a follow-up. If someone notices a significant safety or safeguarding issue, the correct response is to escalate it to an appropriate adult rather than hide it to meet the deadline.

Escalate does not mean making an ordinary difference of opinion into a crisis. It is appropriate when a decision requires authority or help beyond the person’s role, particularly for safety. Similarly, delegation does not erase responsibility for setting clear expectations or providing support.

Apply the words to organising a club outing, creating a short video or preparing a display. Ask which task is blocked by a dependency and what would make the plan more feasible.

7. Privacy, identity and digital responsibility

Digital vocabulary can help a teenager recognise what an app, message or organiser is requesting. The emphasis should remain on supported, safe decisions, not on placing responsibility for fraud or harmful interactions on a child.

• authorisation — permission to perform an action. Example: Check whether the request has proper authorisation.
• authentication — a process for checking an identity claim. Example: The system uses authentication to check the account.
• impersonation — pretending to be a different person or organisation. Example: An impersonation attempt can look official.
• privacy — appropriate control and protection of personal information. Example: Protect privacy when sharing content.
• consent — freely given agreement relevant to the situation. Example: Ask for consent before sharing someone’s image.
• disclosure — making important information known. Example: The offer should disclose relevant charges.
• provenance — the origin and history of content or data. Example: Check the image’s provenance when it matters.
• sponsored — supported by a sponsor in a promotional relationship. Example: A sponsored post has a commercial context.
• confidentiality — appropriate protection of entrusted information. Example: Confidentiality can have safety exceptions.
• report — communicate a concern through an appropriate channel. Example: Report an unsafe request to a trusted adult.

A real example

Worked example. A fictional message asks urgently for personal information and claims to represent a familiar organisation. Discuss the difference between a claim of identity and authentication. The teenager should not send information just because the message uses an official-looking logo. They can describe the request to a trusted adult who can check through an independently known channel.

A sponsored message is not necessarily false, and a verified-looking account can still make inaccurate claims. Separate source identity from evidence for a specific statement. Real platform controls and safety steps change, so use current official guidance rather than memorised assumptions.

Look at a harmless fictional permission notice. Identify who wants access, for what purpose, for how long and whether a person can reasonably decline. Practise asking clear questions without sharing real private details.

8. Legal, community and public-life language

Young people may hear words such as policy, regulation, eligibility and public interest without knowing how they differ. A vocabulary guide can explain the concepts while remaining careful not to invent current local rules.

• policy — an adopted principle or approach that guides action. Example: The club has a policy for booking rooms.
• guideline — a recommended way to act or interpret something. Example: The leaflet contains practical guidelines.
• regulation — an official rule within a system of authority. Example: Check the current regulation with an official source.
• jurisdiction — the area or authority within which rules apply. Example: A rule’s jurisdiction affects where it applies.
• eligibility — meeting criteria to qualify for a benefit or role. Example: The programme lists its eligibility criteria.
• obligation — a duty under an agreement, law or other arrangement. Example: Understand the obligation before agreeing.
• public interest — the welfare or concerns of the wider community. Example: Explain how the proposal serves the public interest.
• equity — fairness that accounts for relevant differences in needs or circumstances. Example: Accessibility support can advance equity.
• transparency — appropriate openness about reasons and processes. Example: Transparency explains how a decision was made.
• accountability — answerability for actions and decisions. Example: Accountability includes reviewing the result.

A real example

Worked example. A poster says a facility is open to eligible users under particular conditions. Ask the teenager to identify the eligibility requirements and whether the poster is a policy statement, a guideline or an official rule. For the real answer, verify the current authoritative notice and its jurisdiction. Do not turn a broad vocabulary definition into specific legal advice.

A guideline does not automatically have the same force as a law; a policy may apply to a particular organisation. Real legal effects differ by place and circumstances. Equitable and equal also describe different considerations, so explain the practical criteria rather than repeating a slogan.

Discuss a library’s borrowing policy or a community centre’s stated rules. Make a small glossary of terms that appear on actual notices, using the current official wording.

9. Identity, wellbeing and self-advocacy

A sixteen-year-old may need language to explain discomfort, ask for support, set limits and distinguish someone’s intention from their impact. These concepts should be taught without pressuring teens to disclose personal experiences or settle unsafe situations themselves.

• autonomy — appropriate capacity to make one’s own decisions. Example: A teen develops autonomy through supported choices.
• agency — the capacity to act and influence outcomes. Example: Give participants agency in a suitable project.
• assertive — clear and confident without unnecessary aggression. Example: An assertive refusal can remain respectful.
• boundary — a stated limit about behaviour or personal space. Example: Respect the boundary another person sets.
• consent — freely given agreement appropriate to the situation. Example: Do not assume consent from silence.
• intention — what someone meant or planned to do. Example: Ask about intention without excusing harm.
• impact — the effect of an action on someone or something. Example: Discuss the impact separately from the intention.
• empathy — trying to understand another person’s experience. Example: Empathy begins with listening and asking.
• de-escalate — reduce the intensity of a conflict. Example: Pause to de-escalate a tense discussion.
• advocate — speak or act in support of a need or interest. Example: Advocate for clearer accessible instructions.

A real example

Worked example. In a fictional group project, a teen feels overlooked when decisions are taken without consultation. A clear statement is: ‘I understand the change may have been unintentional, but it affected my role. Can we agree how decisions will be communicated?’ The teen names impact without asserting malicious intent. If a situation is unsafe, involves harassment or unwanted contact, they should seek support from a trusted adult or appropriate professional.

Being assertive is not the same as being aggressive. De-escalation is not a requirement to tolerate harm, and empathy does not require a person to accept another’s excuse. Personal boundaries and safety matter independently of how politely someone expresses them.

Use fictional situations to practise a request, a refusal and a help-seeking statement. Invite the teenager to choose words that feel natural and clear in the languages they use.

10. Recognise word families and semantic limits

Related words can reveal how a meaning moves between actions, processes and qualities. Morphology can support reading, but guessing from word parts alone is not always reliable. The surrounding sentence and a trustworthy reference still matter.

• validate — check or establish soundness in the relevant context. Example: Validate the measurements before using them.
• validation — the process or result of validating. Example: The data require validation.
• authorise — grant permission to do something. Example: Only the organiser can authorise the change.
• authorisation — permission to carry out an action. Example: Request authorisation before proceeding.
• synthesise — combine information into a coherent whole. Example: Synthesise the findings from two sources.
• synthesis — the combined understanding or result. Example: The summary includes a synthesis of both accounts.
• accountable — answerable for actions. Example: The organiser is accountable for the decision.
• accountability — the condition of being answerable. Example: Accountability includes explaining mistakes.
• interpret — explain what information might mean. Example: Interpret the chart with attention to units.
• interpretation — an explanation of meaning. Example: The interpretation should acknowledge uncertainty.

A real example

Worked example. Compare validate/validation, authorise/authorisation and synthesise/synthesis. Put the verb and noun into two distinct sentences about a real hobby or project. Ask how the sentence changes when the word form changes. This connects word-building with the ability to write precisely rather than collect roots as trivia.

Some related words change spelling, meaning or register. A teenager may understand evaluation but still use evaluate awkwardly, or may use ‘validated’ to mean ‘felt acknowledged’ in a social setting rather than a technical check. Context determines the intended sense. Avoid teaching one rigid definition for all uses.

Look for related forms in a book or a public notice. Ask whether one sentence can be paraphrased into the other form while preserving its meaning and level of certainty.

Eight problems a teenager can solve with better language

A disputed quotation

Three accounts repeat the same quotation, but none identifies the original source. Explain provenance and why copying does not equal independent corroboration. State what would verify it and what remains uncertain.

A percentage without context

A poster claims a fifty per cent increase. Compare changes from 2 to 3 and from 200 to 300. Ask for the denominator and whether the sample represents the intended population.

An unclear commitment

A fictional offer states ‘free for one month, recurring fee afterwards’. Identify the commitment, price, recurrence and cancellation conditions. Practise a clear question for an adult before any actual agreement.

A conflicting project deadline

One project message says Thursday and another says Friday. Identify the discrepancy and the dependency that could be affected. Draft a concise clarification request and record the verified answer.

A public notice

Compare a venue policy, a helpful guideline and a regulation. Discuss why their authority differs and why any real requirements must be verified for the relevant jurisdiction.

A story with more than one interpretation

A character refuses an invitation. Offer two plausible motives and one detail that might support each. Qualify the interpretation instead of claiming to know the character’s thoughts.

A practical choice

Compare two possible family activities using time, accessibility and cost criteria. Explain trade-offs, identify what can be estimated and propose a contingency.

A difficult group conversation

Write an assertive statement describing a concern without attacking the other person. Include a request for clarification, a personal boundary and a suitable route to trusted support if needed.

The seven-day practice routine

• Monday — sources: trace a harmless quotation to the earliest reliable source you can identify. Report any uncertainty.
• Tuesday — numbers: compare two percentage changes and name their denominators and limitations.
• Wednesday — writing: revise an ambiguous instruction so the object, responsibility and date are clear.
• Thursday — commitments: review a fictional subscription description. Identify recurring terms and what an adult would need to check.
• Friday — group work: clarify a deliverable, deadline and dependency. Practise an appropriate follow-up.
• Saturday — boundaries: rehearse a respectful request, refusal and request for trusted support in fictional dialogue.
• Sunday — transfer: select three words from the week and apply them in a new book, conversation or practical plan without copying the initial examples.

Teach each word using a meaning fence

Begin with a plain-language definition, then establish where the word applies and where it does not. For provenance, identify a quotation’s original source and its later copies. State the limit: knowing where information came from does not automatically prove it is accurate. Connect provenance with attribution, credibility and corroboration. Then ask the teen to use the word with an unrelated object or document. A second meaningful use helps show whether the concept has transferred.

For accountability, distinguish taking responsibility for one’s assigned actions from accepting blame for events outside one’s control. Connect accountability with commitments, transparency, mistakes and repair. For consent, explain voluntary agreement and its limits, including the right to refuse. Strong vocabulary creates more precise choices and clearer boundaries; it should never pressure someone into a decision.

Common mistakes to avoid

• Treating a long word as a better word even when it makes the sentence less accurate.
• Confusing a repeated claim with independent corroboration or a polished design with credibility.
• Using statistics without checking the base, units, population and uncertainty.
• Turning ordinary disagreements into arguments about labels instead of listening to the actual point.
• Assuming that understanding a legal or financial word replaces checking current requirements with a qualified source.
• Making young people responsible for resolving unsafe situations alone because they have learned words such as assertive or de-escalate.

Support multilingual communication and individual learning needs

Families can strengthen English while maintaining other languages used at home. ASHA explains that learning more than one language does not itself cause a speech or language disorder and encourages practice in family languages. A teenager may already understand a concept deeply in one language before learning its English form. Invite explanations in the language they can use most precisely, then connect the English label to the idea.

A vocabulary list is not a diagnostic assessment. If a teen continues to struggle with comprehension, reading or communication in ways that affect ordinary participation, discuss the precise challenges with qualified specialists or educators. Consider decoding, sentence complexity, background knowledge, opportunities and accessible communication methods alongside vocabulary.

Frequently asked questions

What vocabulary words should sixteen-year-olds learn first?

Begin with provenance, credible, verify, base rate, uncertainty, counterargument, nuance, synthesis, coherence, scope, dependency, recurring, obligation, authorisation, consent and accountability. Adjust the selection to the teenager’s actual life.

Is there an official worldwide age-sixteen vocabulary list?

No single list applies to every country, language and learner. This guide is an editorial selection, not an examination syllabus or clinical threshold.

Why include practical and civic words?

Terms such as eligibility, jurisdiction and obligation appear in real notices and arrangements. Understanding them helps a teenager know what to ask and when authoritative guidance is needed.

Do sixteen-year-olds need advanced academic vocabulary?

Yes when it clarifies a relevant idea. Synthesis, correlation, counterargument and nuance are useful, but a simpler word is better when it is more accurate or appropriate to the listener.

How does vocabulary help with future work?

Understanding scope, deliverable, dependency, accountability and follow-up helps young people ask clear questions and contribute to projects. It does not require taking on adult responsibilities prematurely.

How can parents tell whether a word is really understood?

Ask for the idea in plain language, a new appropriate example and a non-example. A teenager who can explain when a word does not fit shows more depth than someone who repeats a definition.

What about multilingual teenagers?

Encourage rich family-language conversations. Concepts understood in another language can become a strong foundation for their English labels. Different languages and experiences should be considered when assessing needs.

What if reading and communication remain difficult?

Discuss persistent difficulty with qualified professionals or educators. Word meaning, decoding, comprehension, context and accessibility are related but distinct; a vocabulary list cannot identify a diagnosis.

Completing the Ages 1–16 vocabulary pathway

Use this article as a transition from childhood vocabulary lists to more independent lifelong learning. Choose three terms tied to a real current task: one for evidence, one for commitments and one for communicating with other people. Explain each, find a new example and listen for the teen using it appropriately. If a word remains unclear, revisit its meaning rather than adding harder ones.

Continue from What Vocabulary Words Must We Teach For Children | Age 15 and the Essential Vocabulary Words by Age 1–16 index. Other useful resources include Top 2,000 Vocabulary Words by Age 1–24 and Best Ways to Teach Vocabulary by Age.

• IES What Works Clearinghouse: Improving Adolescent Literacy — explicit vocabulary and discussion.
• IES What Works Clearinghouse: Providing Reading Interventions for Students in Grades 4–9 — word and world knowledge.
• NICHD National Reading Panel Findings — meaningful repeated encounters.
• ASHA Learning More Than One Language — multilingual family communication.