Why English? | Reporting COHERE One Health Studies Through Human, Animal and Environmental Populations, Interfaces, Methods, Results and Integration

ORIENTATION

What this guide covers

Current fact check

COHERE was published in One Health volume 4, pages 14–21, in 2017, DOI 10.1016/j.onehlt.2017.07.001, PubMed ID 28825424 and PMCID PMC5536878. EQUATOR states that it supports reporting observational and interventional One Health studies employing epidemiological methods.

What this guide does not cover

This article focuses on reporting One Health epidemiological evidence. It does not investigate a real outbreak, provide medical or veterinary advice, replace laboratory biosafety, ethics, surveillance protocols or design-specific guidance, or prove causation from cross-domain association.

Worked example

Every chapter returns to a fictional investigation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria across people, companion animals and shared household environments. It is fictional, low-stakes and educational; it does not report a real school, clinical decision or guaranteed outcome.

Warm up with eduKate’s guides to explaining scientific evidence and asking better questions in class.

CHAPTER 1 OF 15

1. Frame a Genuinely One Health Question

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Why this move matters

State why the question requires connected human, animal and environmental evidence.

Map the connected One Health system

State why the question requires connected human, animal and environmental evidence. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: The study asks whether resistant organisms and relevant exposures cluster across household members, pets and shared surfaces. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Three parallel datasets do not automatically make an integrated question. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Frame a Genuinely One Health Question”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 2 OF 15

2. Define the System, Interfaces and Pathways

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Why this move matters

Describe contact, movement, food, water, vectors, waste or other interfaces and the hypothesised pathway.

Map the connected One Health system

Describe contact, movement, food, water, vectors, waste or other interfaces and the hypothesised pathway. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: The household is mapped through caregiving, feeding, cleaning and shared spaces. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

A plausible pathway is not proof of direction. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Define the System, Interfaces and Pathways”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 3 OF 15

3. Specify Place, Time and Context

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Why this move matters

Report geography, season, policy, care setting, animal management, land use and relevant events.

Map the connected One Health system

Report geography, season, policy, care setting, animal management, land use and relevant events. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Sampling occurs within the same fortnight and records recent antibiotics and cleaning changes. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Misaligned time windows can create false comparisons. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Specify Place, Time and Context”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 4 OF 15

4. Define Human, Animal and Environmental Populations

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Why this move matters

Give eligibility, units, sampling frames, recruitment, exclusions and denominators for every domain.

Map the connected One Health system

Give eligibility, units, sampling frames, recruitment, exclusions and denominators for every domain. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: People and pets are enrolled by household, while environmental sites follow a prespecified surface map. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

A sample of surfaces is not a population of people. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Define Human, Animal and Environmental Populations”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 5 OF 15

5. Explain Sampling Across Domains

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Why this move matters

Report selection, clustering, repeated sampling, non-response and how sampling decisions correspond.

Map the connected One Health system

Report selection, clustering, repeated sampling, non-response and how sampling decisions correspond. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: All enrolled households use the same visit sequence, with repeat sampling after six weeks. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Convenience samples can distort apparent cross-domain patterns. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Explain Sampling Across Domains”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 6 OF 15

6. Define Exposures, Outcomes and Covariates

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Why this move matters

State operational definitions, measurement windows, confounders and domain-specific differences.

Map the connected One Health system

State operational definitions, measurement windows, confounders and domain-specific differences. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Recent antibiotic exposure uses documented prescriptions for people and veterinary records for pets. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Similar labels may be measured differently across systems. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Define Exposures, Outcomes and Covariates”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 7 OF 15

7. Describe Specimens, Laboratories and Quality Control

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Why this move matters

Report collection, transport, storage, assays, thresholds, contamination controls and laboratory comparability.

Map the connected One Health system

Report collection, transport, storage, assays, thresholds, contamination controls and laboratory comparability. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Swabs use documented handling and matched identification methods with positive and negative controls. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

A shared organism label can conceal different test performance. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Describe Specimens, Laboratories and Quality Control”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 8 OF 15

8. Address Ethics, Consent, Welfare and Environmental Permissions

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Why this move matters

Explain human consent, animal welfare, owner permission, data privacy, field access and benefit or risk.

Map the connected One Health system

Explain human consent, animal welfare, owner permission, data privacy, field access and benefit or risk. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Households consent separately for personal, animal and environmental sampling and receive clear privacy limits. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

One approval cannot be assumed to cover every domain. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Address Ethics, Consent, Welfare and Environmental Permissions”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 9 OF 15

9. Report Teams, Roles and Cross-Disciplinary Decisions

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Why this move matters

Name disciplines, community roles, responsibilities, disagreements and how terminology was harmonised.

Map the connected One Health system

Name disciplines, community roles, responsibilities, disagreements and how terminology was harmonised. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Epidemiologists, veterinarians, microbiologists and household advisers agree definitions before analysis. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Multidisciplinary authorship does not prove integrated reasoning. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Report Teams, Roles and Cross-Disciplinary Decisions”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 10 OF 15

10. Show Data Alignment and Linkage

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Why this move matters

Explain identifiers, timing, aggregation, linkage quality, unmatched records and privacy protection.

Map the connected One Health system

Explain identifiers, timing, aggregation, linkage quality, unmatched records and privacy protection. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Records link at household and visit levels without exposing personal identifiers to every analyst. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Linkage error can create or erase relationships. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Show Data Alignment and Linkage”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 11 OF 15

11. Describe Statistical Models for Multilevel Data

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Why this move matters

Report clustering, repeated measures, confounding, interactions, missing data and uncertainty.

Map the connected One Health system

Report clustering, repeated measures, confounding, interactions, missing data and uncertainty. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: The analysis accounts for observations nested within individuals, animals, households and visits. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Treating every swab as independent exaggerates precision. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Describe Statistical Models for Multilevel Data”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 12 OF 15

12. Integrate Qualitative, Spatial or Network Evidence Carefully

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Why this move matters

Explain how additional evidence was generated, analysed and combined with epidemiological results.

Map the connected One Health system

Explain how additional evidence was generated, analysed and combined with epidemiological results. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Household interviews help interpret cleaning routines without being reduced to a numeric decoration. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Different evidence types answer different questions. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Integrate Qualitative, Spatial or Network Evidence Carefully”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 13 OF 15

13. Present Domain-Specific and Integrated Results

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Why this move matters

Show denominators, distributions, effect estimates, uncertainty and what changes after evidence is combined.

Map the connected One Health system

Show denominators, distributions, effect estimates, uncertainty and what changes after evidence is combined. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Results report each domain first, then the household-level relationships and contradictory cases. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

A single summary can hide which domain drives the finding. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Present Domain-Specific and Integrated Results”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 14 OF 15

14. Separate Association, Direction and Mechanism

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Why this move matters

Discuss alternative explanations, temporality, selection, measurement error and what would test transmission.

Map the connected One Health system

Discuss alternative explanations, temporality, selection, measurement error and what would test transmission. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Shared strains are described as compatible with a connection, not proof that pets infected people or vice versa. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Direction requires stronger evidence than similarity. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Separate Association, Direction and Mechanism”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

CHAPTER 15 OF 15

15. Translate Findings Into Coordinated, Proportionate Action

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Why this move matters

Explain who can act, what is supported, uncertainty, equity, unintended effects and next evidence.

Map the connected One Health system

Explain who can act, what is supported, uncertainty, equity, unintended effects and next evidence. Connect human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling frames, exposures, outcomes, laboratories, analysis and integration.

Reconstruct one cross-domain investigation

Worked example: Recommendations emphasise antimicrobial stewardship and practical hygiene without stigmatising pet ownership. Follow case definitions, recruitment, environmental sampling, temporal alignment, data linkage, analysis and joint interpretation.

Keep integration separate from mere inclusion

Listing human, animal and environmental data is not the same as explaining how the domains interact or how evidence from each changes the conclusion.

Use COHERE as reporting guidance

Overbroad action can cause harm when pathways remain uncertain. COHERE was published in 2017 for observational and interventional One Health studies using epidemiological methods; it does not replace design-specific guidance, laboratory standards or local ethics.

Student, parent and career transfer

Make one evidence card for “Translate Findings Into Coordinated, Proportionate Action”: source location, plain-language meaning, limit and next question. A parent or teacher can ask for one everyday explanation and one specialist explanation; both must preserve the same conditions. This habit supports public health, medicine, veterinary medicine, environmental science, epidemiology, microbiology, laboratory science, food systems, policy, data science and risk communication without promising a grade, admission, funding decision or job.

PRACTICE LAB

Build a COHERE One Health epidemiological reporting decision trail

Student route

1. Choose one original report inside this guide’s scope.
2. Copy its objective and underline actor, action, context, evidence and intended decision.
3. Draw the specific reasoning chain used in this article.
4. Mark each step reported, inferred, contested or unknown.
5. Rewrite the conclusion so it preserves the narrowest important limitation.

Parent or teacher route

Ask the learner to explain how English helps us report one health epidemiology so human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling, methods, results and integration remain connected twice: once to a classmate and once to a method specialist. Praise a precise correction and a well-stated unknown; both show disciplined attention to evidence.

Early-career route

Create a one-page COHERE One Health epidemiological reporting audit with source link, date checked, scope, method logic, decisive wording, contrary evidence, limit and next action. A colleague should be able to continue without guessing.

Continue with eduKate’s guides to reading course and career information and giving useful feedback in group projects.

USEFUL NEXT READING

Continue with a related guide

Read the PRISMA-S literature-search guide for a related but different reader job. Return here when the question is specifically how to report one health epidemiology so human, animal and environmental populations, interfaces, sampling, methods, results and integration remain connected. Use the linked guide for its separate reader task, and this guide for the question defined here.

For English practice across research, school and career communication, visit the Singapore English Tuition Centre learning site.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

Questions students and parents often ask

Is COHERE a published guideline?

Yes. It was published in 2017 and is listed by EQUATOR.

Must every One Health study measure all three domains?

The study should justify its scope and integration; simply invoking One Health does not make missing domains irrelevant.

Does finding the same organism prove transmission?

No. Similarity may support a hypothesis, but direction and mechanism need additional evidence.

Why are denominators important?

Human participants, animals, households and samples are different units, so readers need to know what each number represents.

Can qualitative evidence be included?

Yes, when its generation, analysis and role in integration are explained clearly.

Why avoid blaming one domain?

Evidence may not establish direction, and stigmatising language can undermine fair and effective action.