Learn 200 Cambridge IGCSE Sociology words for research methods, social inequality and short essay-style answers. Each entry gives a plain-English meaning and an example.
In the Cambridge IGCSE Sociology 0495 syllabus for 2025–2027, Paper 1 lasts two hours and Paper 2 lasts one hour 45 minutes. Each carries 80 marks and 50% of the qualification.
200 essay vocabulary words and examples
Social life and research in Cambridge Sociology
- socialisation — learning norms, values and expectations through social life. explain how a family or peer group supports socialisation.
- norm — a shared expectation about behaviour. give an example of a norm that varies by setting.
- value — a belief about what matters or ought to be encouraged. connect a shared value to an expectation about behaviour.
- role — the behaviour and expectations associated with a social position. compare role expectations at home and at school.
- status — a person’s recognised position within a group or society. distinguish a status acquired through achievement from one assigned at birth.
- identity — how people understand and present who they are, and how others categorise them. explain how social interaction shapes identity.
- peer group — people of similar age or social position who interact. a peer group can reward behaviour accepted by its members.
- sanction — a reward or penalty that encourages conformity to norms. distinguish informal sanctions from formal ones.
- social control — processes that encourage adherence to rules or norms. explain how rules and informal expectations produce social control.
- deviance — behaviour regarded as departing from a group’s norms. what counts as deviance can vary across groups.
- labelling — attaching a social category that can shape how a person is treated. explain how labelling can influence later interactions.
- stigma — a socially discrediting label or attribute. stigma can influence whether people disclose an experience.
- hidden curriculum — the informal norms and behaviours learned through school routines. explain how the hidden curriculum can teach punctuality.
- material deprivation — a shortage of resources needed to participate or meet everyday needs. material deprivation can limit access to study space.
- social mobility — movement between positions in a system of social stratification. distinguish intergenerational mobility from change within one career.
- participant observation — research in which the researcher takes part in the setting being studied. assess what participation lets the researcher observe.
- structured interview — an interview that follows a standard set of questions. structured interviews allow clearer comparison across respondents.
- social desirability — pressure to give answers that seem acceptable to others. consider how social desirability affects self-reported behaviour.
- pilot study — a small trial of a research method before the main study. use a pilot study to identify confusing questionnaire items.
- generalisability — how far findings can reasonably apply beyond the sample studied. check the sample before claiming generalisability.
Families, identity, media and globalisation
- cohesion — the degree to which a group stays connected. strengthen social cohesion.
- inclusion — meaningful participation by people who might otherwise be excluded. promote inclusion.
- kinship — socially recognised ties through descent, partnership or relatedness. kinship can organise duties of care.
- household — a person or group living in the same dwelling or sharing living arrangements. distinguish a household from a family.
- nuclear family — a family unit centred on parents and their children in standard usage. evaluate claims about the nuclear family.
- extended family — family ties or arrangements including relatives beyond parents and children. extended family networks can support care.
- patriarchy — a system in which men hold disproportionate power. analyse whether a division of work reflects patriarchy.
- individualisation — a process in which people are increasingly expected to organise their own lives and choices. individualisation can reshape family decisions.
- secularisation — a decline in religious authority or influence in a specified sphere. secularisation may affect institutions and practices differently.
- pluralisation — the growth of multiple options or traditions within a social setting. religious pluralisation can change affiliation.
- religiosity — the degree or forms of religious belief and practice. measure religiosity through more than attendance.
- representation — the way people or issues are portrayed. media representation can shape perceptions.
- agenda-setting — influencing which issues receive attention. agenda-setting concerns prominence rather than agreement.
- audience reception — how audiences interpret or respond to media. audience reception may vary by social context.
- globalisation — intensification of connections and flows across borders. globalisation can change media distribution.
- glocalisation — adaptation of global forms to local settings. glocalisation can alter the presentation of a media format.
- homogenisation — a process of becoming more alike. shared media formats may encourage homogenisation.
- hybridisation — combination of elements from different cultural forms. hybridisation can produce new local forms.
- transnational — operating across national borders. transnational networks connect media producers.
- diaspora — a population dispersed from a place of origin. diaspora audiences may use media from several places.
Education, inequality and crime
- isolation — a state of being separated from other people. reduce social isolation.
- streaming — placing pupils in groups across several subjects based on perceived attainment. streaming can shape access to lessons.
- setting — grouping pupils by attainment in a specific subject. setting may affect opportunities in mathematics.
- marketisation — introduction of market-like competition or choice into a service. marketisation can change school incentives.
- privatisation — transfer of activity or provision to private organisations. distinguish privatisation from competition among schools.
- meritocracy — a system said to allocate rewards according to merit. evaluate the claim that education is meritocratic.
- cultural capital — socially valued knowledge, dispositions or credentials that can confer advantage. schools may reward some forms of cultural capital.
- inequality — an uneven distribution of resources, access or outcomes. address income inequality.
- disparity — a measurable or noticeable gap between groups. a disparity in access.
- subculture — a group with practices or values distinguishable from a wider culture. a pupil subculture can shape responses to school.
- discrimination — unfair treatment based on a characteristic or category. tackle workplace discrimination.
- criminalisation — the process of making conduct a crime or subject to criminal enforcement. criminalisation changes which acts enter official records.
- surveillance — systematic observation or monitoring. surveillance may influence which behaviour is detected.
- selectivity — uneven application of attention, detection or enforcement. selectivity can shape recorded crime.
- subsidy — financial support that lowers a cost or supports an activity. offer a housing subsidy.
- victimisation — experience of being harmed or made a victim. a victimisation survey can capture some unreported incidents.
- anomie — a weakening or breakdown of normative regulation. anomie is used in some explanations of deviance.
- differentiation — the process of marking or treating people as different. teacher differentiation may affect pupil identities.
- attainment — the level of achievement reached in education. compare attainment across groups.
- gatekeeper — someone who controls access to a setting or participants. a school gatekeeper can affect the sample.
Sociological theory and inquiry
- functionalism — a perspective examining how social institutions contribute to order or stability. a functionalist account of education.
- conflict theory — an approach emphasising competition and unequal power. conflict theory directs attention to class interests.
- interactionism — a perspective focusing on meanings produced in social interaction. interactionism can explain classroom labelling.
- positivism — an approach that seeks systematic observation and explanation of social patterns. positivism can favour standardised measures.
- interpretivism — an approach seeking to understand social meanings from participants’ perspectives. interpretivism can inform open interviews.
- feminism — a family of perspectives examining gendered inequality and power. compare feminist explanations of family roles.
- stratification — structured social inequality among groups. stratification shapes unequal access to resources.
- eligibility — meeting the conditions to receive or do something. set eligibility criteria.
- agency — capacity to act and make choices. recognise pupil agency within institutional rules.
- structure — durable social arrangements that shape available choices. a school structure can influence pupil pathways.
- coverage — the extent to which a service or policy reaches its intended population. extend service coverage.
- provision — the supply of a service, resource or support. improve childcare provision.
- prevention — action taken before a problem occurs. invest in disease prevention.
- intervention — an action taken to change an existing situation. test an early intervention.
- sedentary — involving prolonged sitting or little physical activity. a sedentary lifestyle.
- intersectionality — analysis of how social positions and systems of inequality interact. intersectionality can qualify a single-category explanation.
- ethnography — close study of a social setting or group through sustained engagement. ethnography can reveal classroom routines.
- wellbeing — a person’s general state of health and life satisfaction. improve mental wellbeing.
- longitudinal — following cases or observations over a period of time. a longitudinal study can trace changes in attainment.
- comparative — examining cases through common criteria. a comparative design can test variation between schools.
Design, measurement and ethics
- operationalisation — specifying how an idea will be measured or manipulated. operationalisation turns recall into a score.
- construct — an abstract concept that cannot be observed directly. memory accuracy is a construct.
- validity — how well a measure or inference supports its intended interpretation. evaluate whether the task measures the construct.
- reliability — consistency of measurement or results under specified conditions. check inter-rater reliability.
- replication — repeating a study or procedure to test a finding. a replication uses the same core manipulation.
- sampling — selecting cases or participants from a population. sampling affects who is represented.
- random allocation — assigning participants to conditions by chance. random allocation can reduce systematic group differences.
- control condition — a comparison condition without the critical manipulation or with an alternative treatment. compare the experimental and control conditions.
- confound — a variable that changes with the factor of interest and offers another explanation. prior exposure could confound the result.
- standardisation — keeping procedures consistent across participants or settings. standardisation helps isolate the wording change.
- demand characteristics — cues that suggest what a study expects from participants. demand characteristics may influence answers.
- autonomy — freedom and capacity to make one’s own choices. protect patient autonomy.
- observer effect — a change associated with being observed. the observer effect may alter classroom behaviour.
- generalisation — extension of a finding beyond the cases or conditions studied. limit generalisation from a narrow sample.
- consent — agreement to participate based on appropriate information and choice. obtain informed consent.
- debriefing — explaining the study after participation and addressing questions or concerns. debriefing can explain why details were withheld.
- anonymity — a condition in which identities are not known or linked to responses. anonymous responses can reduce some disclosure concerns.
- confidentiality — protection against unauthorised disclosure of information. maintain confidentiality in the interview records.
- self-report — information participants provide about themselves. a self-report may differ from observed behaviour.
- attrition — loss of participants over the course of a study. attrition can change the composition of the final sample.
Taking a position
- claim — a statement you want the reader to accept. make a claim.
- stance — your position on a question. take a clear stance.
- thesis — the central position or interpretation your response develops. support the thesis.
- premise — an idea the argument starts from. question the premise.
- assumption — something treated as true without being established. test the assumption.
- assert — state a position firmly. assert that access matters.
- argue — give reasons in support of a position. argue for a trial.
- maintain — continue to hold or defend a view. maintain that the policy is fair.
- contend — put forward a position that can be challenged. contend that the proposal is workable.
- justify — give sufficient reasons for a decision or judgement. justify the expense.
- advocate — publicly support an action or change. advocate for reform.
- defend — answer criticism of a view or choice. defend a decision.
- qualify — limit a statement so it applies only where warranted. qualify the conclusion.
- concede — acknowledge a valid point made by the other side. concede that costs may rise.
- rebut — answer an opposing claim with reasoning or evidence. rebut the objection.
- counterargument — a reasoned objection to a position. address a counterargument.
- reservation — a concern that makes agreement incomplete. express a reservation.
- distinguish — show what makes two things different. distinguish cost from value.
- criteria — standards used to judge something. agree on the criteria.
- verdict — a final judgement reached after consideration. reach a verdict.
Using evidence and reasoning
- evidence — information that helps establish a claim. draw on evidence.
- example — a specific case that makes a general point clearer. give a concrete example.
- illustrate — make an idea clearer through a case or detail. illustrate the difficulty.
- demonstrate — show how or why something is true. demonstrate a connection.
- substantiate — support a claim with convincing information. substantiate the allegation.
- corroborate — provide independent support for an existing account. corroborate the witness’s account.
- infer — draw a conclusion from available clues. infer a motive from the wording.
- imply — suggest a meaning without saying it directly. imply that change is possible.
- interpret — explain what something means in context. interpret a figure in context.
- analyse — examine how parts work together. analyse the writer’s choices.
- evaluate — judge the strength, quality or value of something. evaluate the proposal.
- plausible — reasonable enough to believe given what is known. a plausible explanation.
- credible — worthy of belief or trust. a credible source.
- relevant — directly connected to the issue being considered. relevant to the question.
- sufficient — enough for the purpose or conclusion at hand. sufficient for a limited trial.
- representative — typical enough to reflect a larger group. a representative sample.
- anecdote — a brief account of a particular incident. open with an anecdote.
- limitation — something that restricts what a method or claim can establish. acknowledge a limitation.
- contradict — state or show something incompatible with another claim. contradict the earlier finding.
- synthesise — combine ideas from separate sources into a new account. synthesise competing accounts.
Connecting ideas
- whereas — introduces a clause that contrasts with another. whereas the first option costs less.
- although — introduces a fact that qualifies the main statement. although demand may rise.
- however — signals a contrast or change in direction. however, costs remain uncertain.
- nevertheless — signals that a point still holds despite a difficulty. nevertheless, the trial could go ahead.
- conversely — introduces a contrasting relationship in the reverse direction. conversely, lower demand can free capacity.
- similarly — points out a meaningful likeness. similarly, smaller groups need space.
- likewise — shows that a similar point applies elsewhere. likewise, evening users need lighting.
- consequently — introduces a result of what came before. consequently, the queue grew.
- therefore — introduces a conclusion or result that follows. therefore, a trial is justified.
- furthermore — adds a supporting point. furthermore, the existing room is free.
- specifically — narrows the discussion to a precise detail. specifically, the plan would add two sessions.
- instead — signals a replacement or different choice. instead, use the current building.
- alternatively — introduces another option. alternatively, change the timetable.
- otherwise — indicates what happens under different conditions. book early, otherwise places may fill.
- provided — introduces a condition when used with a following clause. provided that staffing is adequate.
- despite — introduces something that fails to prevent the main outcome. despite the delay.
- unlike — marks a difference between two things. unlike the previous scheme.
- respectively — matches items with values in the same stated order. costs were $5 and $8, respectively.
- overall — signals a judgement about the whole picture. overall, the benefits are modest.
- ultimately — identifies what matters after other factors are considered. ultimately, the decision depends on demand.
Explaining cause and effect
- cause — produce or bring about an outcome. cause avoidable delays.
- contribute — play a part in bringing about an outcome. contribute to overcrowding.
- trigger — set a process or reaction in motion. trigger a review.
- accelerate — make a process happen faster. accelerate the transition.
- intensify — make something stronger or more severe. intensify competition.
- exacerbate — make an existing problem worse. exacerbate existing inequalities.
- mitigate — reduce the severity or harmful effect of something. mitigate the harm.
- prevent — stop something from happening. prevent further damage.
- deter — discourage someone from taking an action. deter people from taking risks.
- enable — make an action possible. enable students to attend.
- facilitate — make an action or process easier. facilitate access to training.
- reinforce — strengthen an effect, belief or behaviour. reinforce an existing pattern.
- undermine — weaken something, often gradually. undermine public trust.
- sustain — keep something going over time. sustain the improvement.
- displace — push something or someone out of an existing place or role. displace smaller operators.
- redistribute — change how something is shared. redistribute public funds.
- consequence — an outcome that follows an action or event. an unintended consequence.
- mechanism — the process through which an effect occurs. identify the mechanism.
- correlation — a pattern in which two things vary together. observe a correlation.
- constraint — a condition that limits what can be done. work within a budget constraint.
Testing evidence and reasoning
- intermediate — coming between earlier reasons and the main result. identify an intermediate conclusion.
- unstated — implied without being expressed directly. an unstated assumption about access.
- premiss — a proposition offered as a reason for a conclusion. test whether the premiss is true.
- jointly — together rather than separately. the two reasons jointly support the claim.
- deductive — involving an inference intended to follow necessarily. a deductive argument with a missing premiss.
- inductive — involving reasoning that extends beyond the observed cases. an inductive inference from a survey.
- abductive — concerned with inferring a likely explanation. an abductive inference from an unexpected result.
- counterinstance — an example that goes against a general claim. one counterinstance challenges the rule.
- equivocal — open to different meanings or interpretations. an equivocal use of the word free.
- circular — using the conclusion itself as part of its supposed support. circular reasoning provides no independent reason.
- fallacy — a flaw in reasoning. identify a fallacy in a forced choice.
- confounder — a factor that can distort a proposed causal relationship. distance may be a confounder.
- denominator — the reference total against which a count or rate is expressed. check the denominator in the reported rate.
- response — a reply or a contribution to a survey. a low survey response rate.
- self-selection — the process by which participants choose whether to take part. self-selection limits the survey.
- comparability — the extent to which items can be fairly compared. question comparability across the two periods.
- interested — having a stake that could affect an account. an interested source may still provide accurate data.
- contemporaneous — made or existing at the same time as an event. contemporaneous records of attendance.
- weight — the importance assigned to a piece of evidence. give more weight to direct measurements.
- decisive — strong enough to settle a question under the available evidence. the documents do not provide decisive support.
Exam requirements and worked examples
Know the choices and the short essay tasks
Paper 1 has a compulsory Research Methods question with a data-response element. Also answer either the Identity question or the Inequality question. The compulsory question includes an evaluation task and a separate task in which you propose and give reasons for methods, sampling and secondary evidence. Follow the different demands of those parts.
Paper 2 asks you to choose two structured questions from Family, Education and Crime. The optional structured questions in both papers include a short essay-style final part. Cambridge expects students to develop arguments on both sides using relevant sociological evidence. The method and theory words in this guide work best when the example or mechanism matches the stated issue.
Official specifications and sources
- Cambridge IGCSE Sociology 0495 syllabus for 2025–2027
- Cambridge IGCSE Sociology past papers and specimen materials
Worked essay reasoning about educational inequality
Try this original question. How far can unequal access to material resources explain differences in educational achievement? Begin by identifying a mechanism. Pupils who lack reliable access to a device or a quiet place to study may have fewer opportunities to complete or review work. State what type of achievement and what pupils you mean. Then identify the kind of evidence needed to test the claim.
Develop a competing explanation based on school practices. Grouping, teacher expectations or different access to support can also affect pupils’ opportunities. Show how that process might interact with material resources. For example, after-school help may reduce one disadvantage where pupils can attend. Where travel or caring duties make attendance hard, access to support may differ.
A reasoned judgement can give material resources greater weight for a particular task, such as completing work that requires a computer, while recognising that school practices affect how strongly those resources matter. Support the claim with relevant evidence you have studied. The invented scenario illustrates a mechanism. In a real answer, explain what the evidence shows about actual outcomes.
Fencing Method for a sociology term
Start with Material deprivation can affect schoolwork. Add detail. Some pupils share one device with several people at home. Refine the tone. Shared access may reduce time available for computer-based homework. Add logic. The effect is likely to be stronger when the task has a tight deadline and there are few other places to work. Transfer the method to a different resource, such as transport to after-school sessions.
Try fencing social desirability for a method question. Specify a question people might answer in a socially acceptable way. Explain why their response could differ from their behaviour and what that means for the data. Finally, decide whether anonymous responses or a different measure could reduce the particular problem.
Explain a method by connecting it to a research aim
Suppose a researcher wants to compare school travel across three year groups. A questionnaire could collect the same measures from many pupils. A small interview study could explore why pupils choose a route. Specify which job each method performs. Then explain how the sample would include the groups relevant to the question.
If the task asks for secondary evidence, consider a source such as aggregated travel records or existing transport survey data. Describe what the evidence would add and whether it covers the same pupils, routes or period. For the design task, explain the reasons for your proposed choices. For an evaluation task, also explain what the method cannot establish.
Develop both sides using comparable explanations
Build two paragraphs around the same outcome. In the first, explain a mechanism that supports the view. In the second, offer a plausible alternative or explain the conditions that weaken it. Use evidence with a clear role. A difference between groups can raise a question, while a study that follows changes over time may help you test how the difference developed.
Compare which explanation applies more strongly in the setting you discuss. If your evidence comes from one school, keep the conclusion within what that setting supports. If studies report different results, check whether their age groups, measures or methods differ. The comparison can make your judgement more precise without adding another topic.
Frequently asked questions
Do I need to know every Paper 1 topic? Cambridge says candidates should study all three and make the prescribed choices on the paper. Can I use an example from everyday life? Yes, when it clarifies a mechanism, but use relevant sociological evidence to support wider claims. Should I write a conclusion for every subpart? Match the response to the question and use a supported judgement when the task calls for one.
Make a two-minute vocabulary check
Choose two terms you tend to confuse, such as reliability and validity. Write one example in which repeated measurements agree but the measure misses the concept being studied. Then write an example of a better measure and explain how you would check its consistency. Explain what would improve the research. This helps you remember the distinction and choose the right word under exam conditions.
Distinguish validity, reliability and representativeness
Imagine an attendance record that consistently lists arrivals after registration begins. It can provide reliable counts if staff apply the recording rule consistently. It may be a weak measure of pupils’ overall engagement because it captures only one behaviour. If the records cover one school, they may tell you little about other schools. The three concerns point to different improvements.
Choose a second example and write three questions. Does the measure capture the concept? Would a similar procedure yield consistent results? How well does the group studied reflect the population you want to discuss? Link the answer to the enquiry. A method can be useful for a limited purpose while requiring caution when applied to a broader claim.
Give a concept a job in each paragraph
Pick a term from the list and state what it helps explain. In an essay on deviance, labelling can help explain changes in how others treat someone after a rule is broken. In an essay about research methods, social desirability can help explain why reported rule-breaking differs from observed behaviour. Both concepts add precision when you state the mechanism.
Draft two sentences using the same term in different contexts. Compare which version makes the relationship clearer and why. Then add relevant evidence from your course. If the evidence describes only one group, keep the claim within that scope. If you want to generalise, identify the comparison or sample that would give you a stronger basis.
Before finishing, test your conclusion against the strongest alternative explanation. State when your main explanation is most persuasive and where another mechanism has more force. This gives your judgement a clear boundary.