CLEP Introductory Psychology Exam Instructions

The 200-word examination instruction list

CLEP Introductory Psychology asks you to recognise concepts, compare explanations and apply them to examples. Read the behaviour or finding before selecting a term. Then check whether the example includes the feature that distinguishes that term from its neighbours.

Start with the list or jump to exam requirements, worked examples, the Fencing Method or practice. The terms explain what a question asks and which details matter.

Essential instructions

No.	Instruction or term	Meaning or action
1	Identify	Name or pick out the item the question specifies.
2	State	Express the required point directly and clearly.
3	Describe	Report the relevant characteristics, events or pattern.
4	Explain	Connect the result to its cause, mechanism or reasoning.
5	Compare	Set the items side by side on the same relevant feature.
6	Interpret	Say what a statement, result or display means in context.
7	Infer	Use clues to reach a conclusion the material implies.
8	Evaluate	Weigh relevant evidence or criteria before reaching a judgment.
9	Justify	Give evidence for the claim and explain how that evidence supports, qualifies or defends it.
10	Determine	Work from the given information to establish an answer.
11	Select	Choose only the number of options requested.
12	Calculate	Use numbers or other given information to work out a result.
13	Estimate	Find an approximate answer using the available clues.
14	Predict	Use available evidence to say what is likely to happen.
15	Best supported	Prefer the conclusion backed most directly by the evidence.
16	In context	Use the meaning that fits this passage or situation.
17	Evidence	A fact, detail or observation that supports a claim.
18	Claim	An assertion that can be tested against evidence or reasoning.

Psychological concepts and research methods

No.	Instruction or term	Meaning or action
19	Psychological perspective	Identify which approach best explains the stated behaviour in the scenario.
20	Behavioural perspective	Use learning and observable behaviour to explain the pattern.
21	Cognitive perspective	Examine attention, memory, reasoning or interpretation.
22	Biological perspective	Examine relevant neural, hormonal, genetic or physiological factors.
23	Humanistic perspective	Use ideas such as personal growth and self-concept to interpret behaviour.
24	Psychodynamic perspective	Examine unconscious processes or conflicts in the theory named.
25	Operational definition	Specify how an abstract construct is measured or manipulated in a study.
26	Construct validity	Ask whether a measure adequately represents the concept it is intended to measure.
27	Test–retest reliability	Check whether a measure yields consistent scores across comparable occasions.
28	Random sampling	Select participants using a chance process to support population inference.
29	Random assignment	Use chance to place participants in conditions to support fair comparison.
30	Placebo effect	An observed change attributable in part to expectations about a treatment or condition.
31	Double-blind design	Keep participants and relevant interacting or assessing researchers unaware of condition assignment when feasible.
32	Negative reinforcement	A behaviour becomes more frequent because it removes or prevents an aversive stimulus.
33	Positive punishment	A behaviour becomes less frequent after a stimulus is added as a consequence.
34	Negative punishment	A behaviour becomes less frequent after a stimulus is removed as a consequence.
35	Generalisation gradient	Compare the strength of a learned response across cues of different similarity.
36	Stimulus discrimination	Respond differently to similar stimuli when they predict different outcomes.
37	Shaping	Reinforce successive approximations to the target behaviour.
38	Observational learning	Acquire behaviour or information by watching others.
39	Encoding specificity	Recall can improve when retrieval cues match those present at encoding.
40	Proactive interference	Earlier learning disrupts recall of newer material.
41	Retroactive interference	Newer learning disrupts recall of earlier material.
42	Availability heuristic	Judge frequency or likelihood using the ease of recalling examples.
43	Confirmation bias	Seek or interpret evidence in ways that favour an existing belief.
44	Circadian rhythm	A biological rhythm of roughly one day.
45	Sensory adaptation	Responsiveness decreases during continued exposure to a stimulus under relevant conditions.
46	Perceptual constancy	Perceive an object’s features as stable despite changes in the sensory input.
47	Object permanence	Understand that an object continues to exist when it cannot be perceived.
48	Secure attachment	A classification from an assessment of how a child uses a caregiver for security and exploration.
49	Conformity	Change behaviour or judgment in response to group influence.
50	Obedience	Respond to a direct instruction from an authority.
51	Group polarisation	Discussion can move members toward a stronger version of the group’s initial tendency.
52	Fundamental attribution error	Overemphasise personal characteristics and underweight situational influences when judging others’ behaviour.
53	Trait theory	Explain personality through relatively stable dimensions of individual difference.
54	Big Five	Recognise openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism as broad trait dimensions.
55	Self-efficacy	A person’s belief in their ability to carry out a particular task or action.
56	Developmental stage	A theoretically defined period in which particular abilities or patterns emerge.
57	Longitudinal design	Observe the same participants across multiple times.
58	Cross-sectional design	Compare groups measured at roughly the same time.
59	Diagnostic classification	Use the categories and criteria named in the question to distinguish conceptual examples.
60	Comorbidity	Co-occurrence of more than one disorder or condition.
61	Psychotherapy	A structured psychological intervention whose approach depends on the stated model.
62	Exposure in behavioural theory	Explain how repeated contact with a feared cue can change a learned response under specified conditions.
63	Sensory threshold	Identify the intensity needed for detection under the question’s criterion.

Further subject vocabulary

No.	Instruction or term	Meaning or action
64	Support	Give evidence that strengthens the named claim.
65	Analyze	Break the information into relevant parts and explain how they relate.
66	Multiple-choice question	Select the answer that satisfies the full stem and any limiting words.
67	Stimulus	Use the figure, extract or other material attached to the question.
68	Identify the research method	Name the design based on how data were collected and whether a variable was manipulated.
69	Identify the ethical guideline	Name the relevant safeguard and connect it to what the researchers did.
70	Interpret a statistic	State what the number describes about the named group, measure or comparison.
71	Evaluate generalizability	Use recruitment and sample characteristics to say who the findings can reasonably describe.
72	Apply a psychological concept	Name a relevant concept and show how it accounts for a detail in the scenario.
73	Informed consent	Participants voluntarily agree after receiving relevant information about the research.
74	Debriefing	Researchers explain the study afterward, including relevant details withheld earlier.
75	Confidentiality	Identifiable information is protected from unauthorised disclosure.
76	Anonymity	The responses cannot readily be linked by the researchers to identified participants.
77	Right to withdraw	Participants can stop taking part without penalty.
78	Minimising harm	Identify measures that reduce foreseeable risks to participants.
79	Deception	Researchers intentionally withhold or misrepresent information, subject to ethical safeguards.
80	Experiment	Researchers manipulate a variable and measure its effect under controlled conditions.
81	Correlational study	Researchers examine an association between measured variables.
82	Case study	Researchers examine one person, group or case in depth.
83	Naturalistic observation	Researchers record behaviour in its usual setting.
84	Meta-analysis	Researchers statistically combine results across relevant studies.
85	Self-report measure	Participants report their own experiences, attitudes or behaviour.
86	Social desirability bias	Responses may shift toward what participants believe is socially acceptable.
87	Demand characteristics	Cues about the study can influence participants’ behaviour.
88	Double-blind procedure	Participants and the relevant researchers or assessors do not know treatment assignments during the study.
89	Random selection	Use chance to choose participants from a defined population to support representativeness.
90	Convenience sample	Participants are recruited because they are readily accessible.
91	Representative sample	The sample reflects relevant characteristics of the population of interest.
92	Generalizability	The degree to which results can reasonably apply beyond the sample or setting studied.
93	Third-variable problem	Another factor could account for an observed association between two variables.
94	Directionality problem	An association alone leaves open which variable could influence the other.
95	Correlation coefficient	Use the sign for direction and the magnitude for strength of linear association.
96	Effect size	An estimate of the magnitude of a difference or relationship.
97	Neuron	A cell that processes and transmits information.
98	Action potential	A rapid change in electrical potential that travels along an axon.
99	Neurotransmitter	A chemical messenger released at a synapse.
100	Reuptake	Removal of a released neurotransmitter by transport back into a cell, often the releasing neuron.
101	Sympathetic nervous system	The autonomic division associated with mobilisation during challenge.
102	Parasympathetic nervous system	The autonomic division associated with rest and restoration.
103	Neuroplasticity	The nervous system’s ability to change in response to experience or injury.
104	Selective attention	Direct mental resources toward particular input while filtering other input.
105	Absolute threshold	The weakest stimulus detected on about half of presentations under the stated conditions.
106	Signal detection	Explain how sensitivity and decision criteria affect whether a stimulus is reported.
107	Top-down processing	Use prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory input.
108	Bottom-up processing	Build perception from incoming sensory features.
109	Classical conditioning	Learn an association between stimuli so that one can elicit a conditioned response.
110	Operant conditioning	Behaviour changes in relation to its consequences.
111	Positive reinforcement	Adding a consequence increases the future frequency of a behaviour.
112	Punishment	A consequence decreases the future frequency of a behaviour.
113	Extinction	A learned response weakens when the relevant conditioning relationship is discontinued.
114	Stimulus generalization	A learned response also occurs in the presence of similar stimuli.
115	Encoding	Transform information into a form that can be stored.
116	Storage	Retain encoded information over time.
117	Retrieval	Access stored information.
118	Working memory	Temporarily maintain and manipulate information for the current task.
119	Retrieval practice	Strengthen access to knowledge by actively recalling it.
120	Spacing effect	Learning episodes distributed over time can improve long-term retention.
121	Attachment	An enduring emotional bond, often discussed in relation to a child and caregiver.
122	Cognitive dissonance	Discomfort arising from inconsistency among beliefs, attitudes or behaviours.
123	Intrinsic motivation	Engagement driven by interest or satisfaction inherent in the activity.
124	Extrinsic motivation	Engagement driven by separable outcomes such as grades or rewards.
125	Biopsychosocial model	Consider biological, psychological and social influences together.
126	Cognitive behavioral therapy	Identify and change unhelpful patterns of thinking and behaviour.
127	Hypothesis	State a testable prediction about a relationship.
128	Research question	Specify the focused question that the investigation will answer.
129	Independent variable	Identify what the investigator changes deliberately.
130	Dependent variable	Identify the measured outcome of the investigation.
131	Controlled variable	Identify a factor kept constant to help isolate the tested relationship.
132	Control group	Use the baseline comparison to interpret the treatment effect.
133	Experimental design	Use the stated groups, conditions and measurements to judge the experiment.
134	Sample size	Check how many observations, individuals or trials contribute to the result.
135	Raw data	Use the measurements as originally collected.
136	Processed data	Use values calculated, combined or transformed from the original readings.
137	Outlier	Identify an observation unusually far from the general pattern.
138	Uncertainty	State or interpret the estimated doubt associated with a measurement or value.
139	Error bars	Read their meaning from the figure legend before interpreting them.
140	Repeatability	Consider agreement when the same method is repeated under the same conditions.
141	Reproducibility	Consider whether results agree when the method is repeated under changed conditions.
142	Validity	Consider whether the evidence or method answers the intended question.
143	Reliability	Consider whether a result or method gives consistent findings.
144	Confounding factor	Identify a factor that could contribute to the apparent relationship.
145	Correlation	Describe how variables vary together within the data.
146	Causation	Explain how one factor produces a change in another when evidence supports it.
147	Trend	The broad direction or pattern over a range.
148	Pattern	A regularity visible across observations or examples.
149	Scatterplot	Describe form, direction, strength and unusual points when relevant.
150	Baseline measurement	Use the reading taken before the stated intervention or change.
151	Identify the reference group	Find the comparison used to isolate the change attributed to the intervention.
152	Explain a limitation	Identify the assumption or data issue that restricts the conclusion.
153	Keep the comparison fair	Compare quantities on the same stated basis and units.

Other examination vocabulary

No.	Instruction or term	Meaning or action
154	Control treatment	Use the treatment intended to provide a reference comparison.
155	Positive control	Use the comparison expected to show that the procedure can detect an effect.
156	Negative control	Use the comparison expected to show what happens without the target effect.
157	Model	Use a simplified mathematical or conceptual representation to address the task.
158	Table	Information arranged in rows and columns.
159	Graph	A visual display of data or a mathematical relationship.
160	Scale	The intervals or measurement relationship used in a display.
161	Cohort	Identify the group followed or compared in the study.
162	Cross-sectional comparison	Read the differences measured at the stated time without assuming a later causal sequence.
163	Experimental manipulation	Identify what investigators deliberately changed.
164	Selection bias	Check whether the way participants were included affects the comparison.
165	Alternative hypothesis	Identify a different explanation or prediction the study could test.
166	Control for	Account for a factor that could otherwise distort the comparison.
167	Statistically significant	Interpret the result under the test and threshold supplied, alongside the effect and uncertainty.
168	Sample mean	Use the average of the values in the specified sample.
169	Standard error	Interpret it as uncertainty in an estimated statistic where the question uses that measure.
170	Reasoning about Research Design	Judge the design, procedures and conclusions of the described study.
171	Data-Based and Statistical Reasoning	Use the relevant figures and statistical meaning before drawing a conclusion.
172	Alternative explanation	Consider a different reason that could account for the same observation.
173	Practical significance	Judge whether the estimated difference matters in the setting.
174	Confidence interval	Give the plausible range for the population parameter under the stated method and conditions.
175	Margin of error	Identify the amount added to and subtracted from the point estimate in the stated interval.
176	Compare distributions	Use the same features for each group and compare them explicitly.
177	Evidence from the study	Use the relevant comparison or numerical result from the stated study.
178	Source attribution	Identify the source when paraphrasing, quoting or using its information.
179	Support the claim	Give evidence that bears on the exact claim in the question.
180	Scope of evidence	Check whether the evidence applies to the people, time or situation named.
181	Unsupported extension	Reject an option that applies the conclusion beyond its evidence.
182	Direction of change	State whether the quantity increases, decreases or stays unchanged.
183	Percentage point	Find the simple difference between two percentage values.
184	Line of reasoning	Make the connection between the thesis, evidence and supporting ideas visible.
185	Empirical claim	Identify a statement that can be tested against observation or data.
186	Scope of the claim	Match the answer to the people, period or cases the passage actually discusses.
187	Strength of support	Judge how directly a detail bears on the exact claim.
188	Warranted inference	Choose an inference that has adequate support in the text.
189	Contrast	State a difference between the named cases on a common basis.
190	Define	State the meaning of the term with its essential features.
191	Give one	Supply one relevant answer that meets the task.
192	Indicate	Point to or state the feature the prompt asks for.
193	Complete	Fill the missing parts while preserving the given structure.
194	Label	Attach clear names, units or symbols to the requested features.
195	Construct	Produce the specified representation using the information given.
196	Sketch	Show the required shape, relationships and labels.
197	Plot	Place the supplied points on the correct axes and scale.
198	Outline	Give the main steps or features in a logical order.
199	Suggest	Offer a plausible answer that fits the scenario and constraints.
200	Distinguish	Name the feature that separates two easily confused ideas.

What CLEP Introductory Psychology requires

Exam component	Format and scope
Exam format	Approximately 95 questions in 90 minutes, including some unscored pretest items.
Content	Methods, biological bases, sensation, consciousness, learning, cognition, motivation, development, personality, disorders, treatment, social psychology and measurement.
Classification terminology	College Board identifies DSM-5 terminology and classifications in its exam outline.

CLEP is a U.S.-based college-credit examination programme. The receiving institution decides which exams and scores it accepts and how credit applies. Candidates outside the United States should check testing options with their test centre and acceptance with their institution.

Read the task before choosing a method

For a research question, identify how participants were selected and how conditions were assigned. For a learning question, identify the behaviour, what follows it and whether the behaviour increases or decreases.

Worked examples for common instructions

Identify the kind of learning

Prompt. A warning sound stops when a driver fastens a seat belt. Over time the driver buckles sooner. What process fits?

Answer. Negative reinforcement. Buckling becomes more frequent or prompt because it removes the warning sound.

Separate sample selection and assignment

Prompt. Researchers recruit volunteers and then randomly place them in two study conditions. What is random here?

Answer. Assignment to conditions is random. Recruitment through volunteering is a separate selection process.

Interpret a correlation

Prompt. Students who report more sleep also report higher alertness. What can this observation support?

Answer. It supports an association in the observed sample. Other explanations include routines or workload that influence both measures.

Identify interference

Prompt. A learner remembers their old locker combination when trying to recall the new one. What term fits?

Answer. Proactive interference. Earlier learning makes recall of newer information more difficult.

Use the Fencing Method to build an answer

Begin with one accurate answer. Add the detail that fixes it to the question, then state the reason connecting the detail and answer. Use that reasoning on a new case to check that you understand the term.

Start. The behaviour was reinforced.

Add context. Buckling became more frequent and the warning sound stopped when the driver buckled.

Add reasoning. Removal of the aversive sound increased buckling, which identifies negative reinforcement.

Transfer. Try a scenario where a pleasant consequence is added and identify how the reinforcement changes.

Practise with the 200 terms

Take two nearby concepts, such as negative reinforcement and negative punishment. Write one scenario for each. Identify the consequence and whether the original behaviour increases or decreases.

Use the operational definition

Try it. A study measures attention by correct detections of a target during five minutes. Which detail defines attention in the study?

Check. The number of correct detections in the five-minute task is the stated operational measure.

Frequently asked questions

How do I choose between two plausible terms?

Identify the feature that separates them, then return to the scenario. For a learning question, that feature may be what was added or removed and the direction of the behaviour change.

Official sources and next reading

College Board CLEP Introductory Psychology exam description and sample resources

Top 200 Vocabulary Word List for CLEP Introductory Psychology | Must Know Words for Common Examination Instructions